Higher Degree Theses

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A multifaceted analysis of diurnal streamflow patterns through the application of advanced analytical tools
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Sarwar, Muhammad Waqas
Understanding the complex dynamics of water flow within a catchment is fundamental to effective water resource management. This understanding involves robust knowledge of the catchment's hydrological and physiographical features. It requires a profound grasp of the spatiotemporal variability in a catchment's climatic and hydrological patterns. Within this context, this thesis started with a comprehensive review of the historical and current literature on diurnal fluctuations in groundwater. The review touched upon several different aspects of the phenomenon, ranging from discussing the mechanisms of the origin of these signals, their role in the catchment's water balance, their link with groundwater and with the transpiration activities of the vegetation, and in the end, the importance of studying these catchments in revealing characteristics of a catchment. Potential gaps in the analysis of diurnal fluctuations are identified by exploring the literature., which motivated the compilation of this thesis. Firstly, the relationship between diurnal fluctuation and the potential evapotranspiration of riparian plants is investigated in relation to its effect on catchment reservoir storage. A novel method of estimating evapotranspiration (ET) rates is devised by establishing a relationship between diurnal streamflow changes and the catchment's riparian source area. The method reasonably estimated riparian evapotranspiration (ET) and linked the riparian area's dynamics with the diurnal patterns in stream flow by assuming a linear relationship between saturated riparian reservoirs and outflow. This analysis provided a much-needed understanding of the behaviour of the diurnal signals in a catchment and its relationship with the physical features of the catchment. Further, this analysis deeply studied the concept of time delay associated with the transpiration activities of riparian plants and catchments' response regarding diurnal fluctuation. Additionally, the seasonal evolution of ET estimates and the time lag revealed the tight coupling between stream response and active vegetation zones, with more significant and rapid fluctuation in colder months than warmer ones. In conclusion, the method provided an elaborate understanding of the complex interplay between riparian zones, groundwater dynamics, and streamflow patterns, contributing to a more profound understanding of catchment hydrology. Another significant thesis objective was to develop advanced automated techniques for detecting and analysing diurnal fluctuations to provide fast and reliable observations of diurnal fluctuations from a large dataset. Manually identifying this scarce phenomenon in an extensive multi-year dataset is time-consuming and one of the biggest reasons for minimal, large-sample studies concerning diurnal streamflow fluctuations. This is addressed by forming an automated process of diurnal fluctuation extraction with the application of the wavelet transform. The capabilities of both types of wavelet transformation, the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and continuous wavelet transform (CWT) are tested to reveal time-frequency information of diurnal signals. A detailed workflow is developed to choose the best wavelet for detrending a streamflow series to obtain diurnal fluctuation. The detrending performance of the DWT process is compared against the traditional time-based detrending methods like the moving average. It confirms the superiority of wavelet transform in optimal detrending of observed streamflow data series. The CWT presented many different plots and revealed exciting features in the diurnal patterns in streamflow. The CWT information is then used to develop an algorithm for extracting diurnal episodes from extensive streamflow records. The extraction process captured an adequate number of diurnal episodes, which matched well with the manual identifications. Overall, the automated technique addressed the limitations posed by manual identification and contributed significantly to the advancement of time-frequency dynamics of diurnal fluctuations. Finally, with the knowledge of diurnal fluctuation gained in the first research objective and with the capabilities of the wavelet transform, a large sample study is carried out using streamflow records from different New Zealand catchments. Various dataset sources from streamflow records, snow cover maps, and digital elevation rasters are used to calculate different catchment characteristics. The analysis showed that characteristics like catchment shape and size strongly correlate with diurnal amplitude. The diurnal lag also showed patterns of change with the catchment parameters. It is revealed that the correlation between catchment size and diurnal amplitude becomes weaker in larger catchments due to the diverse and heterogeneous nature of environmental processes within these regions. This research significantly contributes to a deeper understanding of the temporal patterns of streamflow, providing valuable insights for hydrological modeling and water resource management. By integrating field observations, advanced analytical methods, and regional context, this work advances the understanding of diurnal streamflow dynamics.
Death and homelessness on the streets of Aotearoa New Zealand: Sustaining life
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Charvin-Fabre, Sandrine
In high-income countries, homeless people die 20 to 35 years earlier than domiciled populations. Despite this enduring reality, the issue of death inequality remains underexplored, especially in indigenous homeless contexts, facing the ongoing effects of colonisation. This study centres on the perspectives and aspirations of a Māori street homeless community, known as the “Peeps”. Its objective is twofold: to spotlight to unjust, untimely, and avoidable mortality impacting homeless communities in Aotearoa New Zealand, and to understand how life can be sustained against the adversity of street life. The thesis diverges from conventional public health approaches, which often dichotomise early deaths prevention through improved healthcare access during homelessness, and palliative care provision at the end of life of homeless people. This thesis explores “the temporal space of life prior to death”. Within that temporal realm, the omnipresent “risk of dying” that infiltrates the lives of homeless people, disrupting the linear progression toward death observed in domiciled populations, is recognised. This temporal space is understood as a zone of uncertainty and potentiality, wherein complex life-death dynamics operate, revealing broader political, societal and cultural tensions. This study encountered significant challenges, including the dearth of prior death-related research in Māori homeless contexts, and my non-Māori identity. In response, an indeterminate approach, rooted in relational ethics and complexity and systems thinking — aligned with Māori worldviews — was adopted. Part I of the thesis is conceptual and contextual. Part II invites the readers into the fragile “temporal space of life prior to death” and the cyclical research process. Cycle 1 focuses on understanding the local context of death inequality, through relational fieldwork and statistical analysis of coroners’ reports. This analysis uncovers a 30-year life expectancy disparity with domiciled populations, exacerbated by three-quarters of avoidable mortality, mainly due to chronic conditions and suicide. Subsequent cycles sustain relational fieldwork, using collaborative and critical performance ethnography. Cycle 2 reveals the Peeps’ resistance to access healthcare, rooted in experiences of transgenerational trauma and marginalisation of Māori beliefs and values in relation to death and dying within mainstream healthcare institutions. Collaboration with the Peeps leads to the co-creation of a drama, intended to initiate conversations with health professionals from the Peeps’ perspectives and aspirations, to improve the quality of care. This cycle also highlights the impact of disconnection processes with whānau (family, extended family) experienced by the Peeps. Progressing further, cycle 3 illuminates healing processes with whānau using Advance Care Planning, envisioned as a relational space, providing the Peeps with a sense of belonging, and spiritual continuity in the perspective of death and dying. In addition to shedding light on the profound death inequality that affect Māori homeless people, this thesis argues for homelessness to be recognised as “complex life-threatening conditions associated with serious-related health suffering”. Accordingly, the thesis advocates the shift toward comprehensive care, inclusive of a concurrent prevention and palliation approach over the course of homelessness, to mitigate its impact on the lives of Māori homeless people and enhance holistic wellbeing.
An efficient process to designing robotic end effectors for high value crops: Application on robotic apple fruitlet thinning
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2025) Jangali, Rahul
High value crops continue to rely extensively on manual labour for labour intensive and expensive tasks like harvesting and thinning. Robotics is increasingly being investigated as a solution to combat labour shortages which threaten the sustainability and growth of the horticultural sector. However, the seasonal nature of high value crops offers only a short window of a few weeks to field tests one robotic end effector per season using the conventional process. This hinders the research and development timeline of robotic end effectors. This thesis presents an efficient design process, modified from existing design methods, to overcome this limitation by capitalising the remainder of the off-season window within a year, and thus reduces the robotic end effector development time. The efficient design process starts with co-design workshops involving growers and field visits to gather requirements, understand crop physiology, and determine the specific needs for identified crop management tasks. This information guides the development of several end effector concepts. Concepts with feasible potential are selected to progress to the prototype stage, which then undergo laboratory testing and comparative evaluations during off-season. The off-season investigation can only be possible by creation of an artificial crop structure that replicates the crop's physiology and is capable of testing the prototype's core mechanism principles repetitively. This structure is also optimised with enhancements and design optimisation of the end effectors, such that field testing time can be maximised to address issue unique to field conditions. This process then allows for extensive testing of various end effectors within a single year, significantly reducing the development duration. The process prioritises the generation of multiple viable end effector concepts while integrating feedback from growers. The efficient design process was implemented to develop robotic end effectors for apple fruitlet thinning. The design requirements for thinning fruitlets to 1 or 2 fruitlets from a cluster were identified after consultation with growers and a visit to the apple orchard. Nine concepts were generated and preliminarily tested in the field and consulted with growers. Four distinct concepts were then selected: 1) cutting that cuts the stalk, 2) suction based on grasping and rotating, 3) paraboloid based on grasping and rolling, and 4) piercing end effector based on spear piercing and rotate. These concepts were further developed into fully functional end effectors for laboratory evaluation, enabled by the development of an artificial structure that allows interchangeable fruitlets of all sizes and accommodating repetitive testing of the end effectors core mechanism principles. After an iterative process of testing, optimisation, and modifications of end effectors and artificial fruitlet structures, a comparative evaluation was performed to benchmark and quantify the capability of each end effector was conducted. A computer vision system and path planning systems were developed and integrated with the end effectors to facilitate this evaluation. This shows that the vacuum suction end effector consistently reached a 100\% success rate from 90° pitch angle on single fruitlets, and also maintained this success rate at a 90° pitch angle in a fruitlet cluster in all positions, followed by cutting and paraboloid with 80\% success rate on a single fruitlet. In contrast, the spear piercing mechanism consistently under performed and was excluded from the field testing. The field test in apple orchards under real world conditions indicated that the suction end effector achieved the highest success rate, reaching 70\%, followed by cutting end effector with 44\% and paraboloid with 26\%, showing trends consistent with lab evaluations. The primary causes of failure are positioning errors and occlusion. Thus, the efficient design process developed the suitable suction end effector to be integrated with the overall robotic platform for further development within a single year, compared to a minimum of two years using a conventional process.
What is the past?
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Young, Benjamin David
This thesis explores the question: what is the past? I take up the radical view that the past exists, but the present and future do not. The four main theories of time have described the past in a variety of ways: Presentism says it is non-existent; eternalism describes it as on a par with the present and future; the growing block and moving spotlight views describe it as being ontologically on a par with the present or future, respectively. I investigate how these theories have addressed the nature of the past question using a logico-semantic approach, which generates ontological problems of absence because the past objects that statements about the past denote are absent from their ontologies. Presentism, which accepts that the past is non-existent, faces the greatest challenges concerning the past because it cannot account for the truthmaker of statements about the past. Eternalism, along with the growing block and moving spotlight views, must reconcile the significant differences in our experiences of the past, present, and future with their view that all or some of them are ontologically on a par. I consider the traditional logico-semantic approaches to responding to the nature of the past question and argue that actualist versions of presentism are ill-equipped to answer it. Of the theories of time that do not rely upon a logico-semantic analysis, four seem promising. Meinongian presentism, which argues that there is a non-existent past accepts an ontological response to the question of the past, but I argue that it incorrectly defines the point of contrast between the existent and the non-existent. Although eternalism, the growing block, and moving spotlight views can explain the ontological ground of references and truths about the past, we may question whether there is a past since these views treat its nature as ontologically on par with that of the present or future. This steers the investigation towards intentionality, the directedness of our thoughts toward objects. I analyse thoughts about the past, as well as those about the present and future to understand their nature and their relationship to an external mind-independent world. I argue that the past’s uniquely immutable nature differentiates it from the mutable present and future, and that immutability entails substantiveness, while mutability entails nonsubstantiveness. The past’s substantive nature entails its existence while the nonsubstantiveness of the present and future entail their non-existence.
Development of biomaterials from sustainably produced macroalgae feedstocks
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024-07-17) Jayasooriya, Nethmie
Upgrading and maintaining large-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is notably expensive, particularly in rural areas of New Zealand. Freshwater macroalgae ponds may offer a cost-effective alternative for wastewater treatment in these areas. These ponds produce significant amounts of residual macroalgae biomass as a by-product of the bioremediation process, which is nutrient-rich and contains valuable biopolymers like cellulose. Utilizing this residual biomass as a substrate for high-value cellulose production is yet to be demonstrated. Therefore, this thesis investigated the potential of utilizing this residual freshwater macroalgae biomass to develop bioproducts (cellulose and biostimulants) aligning with the principles of a circular economy and waste recovery. The first chapter investigated the dual extraction process of biostimulants and high-purity cellulose from Oedogonium calcareum grown in primary effluent. It introduces an economical and effective extraction method utilizing a hot alkali, which also provides disinfection, ensuring that the biomass is free from pathogens, making it safe for further use. The biostimulant extract was found to be comprised of several plant-promoting substances. Subsequently, the residual biomass was used to extract cellulose, and the quality of this Oedogonium-derived cellulose was assessed to determine its characteristics for potential future use in biocomposites. In the second chapter, a comparative analysis was conducted on cellulose extracted from four macroalgae species, namely Rhizoclonium sp., Zygnema sp., Oedogonium sp., and Stigeoclonium sp. This research filled a significant gap by providing a detailed characterization of cellulose derived from freshwater macroalgae, which has been less studied compared to cellulose from marine macroalgae. This chapter makes a significant contribution by fully characterizing the physicochemical properties of freshwater macroalgae cellulose, which as a by-product of wastewater treatment, provides an alternative and sustainable source of cellulose with potential future applications in biocomposites. The final chapter details the development of biocomposite films using poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) reinforced with cellulose nanofibers derived from a naturally co-existing mixed algae culture of Cladophora sp. and Rhizoclonium sp. The production and characterization of 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy (TEMPO)-oxidized Cellulose NanoFibre (CNF) from these macroalgae was accessed. Additionally, PHBV polymer biocomposite films incorporating either commercially available plant-derived CNF, unmodified algae cellulose, or TEMPO-oxidized CNF were compared. The films were comprehensively characterized, with a focus on their mechanical and thermal properties. The results demonstrated the potential of these biocomposite films for use in applications such as packaging materials, highlighting their environmental and functional benefits. Overall, this thesis demonstrates significant advancements in the utilization of algae grown in wastewater for the successful extraction of bioproducts. It investigated the efficient recovery and application of macroalgae-derived cellulose and also highlighted the potential of these bio-based materials in enhancing the properties of the PHBV polymer, thus contributing to the development of sustainable biocomposite materials.
Therapeutic hypothermia and early waking: Waking unconscious survivors following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest to positively neurologically prognosticate
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Watson, Noel
Introduction: Cardiac arrest is a significant global health challenge, which leads to substantial morbidity and mortality, impacting 50 to 100 individuals per 100,000 in the general population. Ischemic heart disease is the primary cause, particularly in developed countries. Historically, survival rates following cardiac arrest with a good neurological outcome were low; however, advancements in emergency response, including early Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), access to defibrillation, coronary revascularisation, intensive care and Targeted Temperature Management (TTM), have notably improved patient outcomes. The practice of TTM has evolved over the past two decades, advocating that Therapeutic Hypothermia (TH) enhances neurological outcomes; although there has been much controversy over optimal temperature ranges. Notwithstanding, international resuscitation guidelines continue to endorse TTM as a post-resuscitation neuroprotective strategy, recommending temperatures between 32° and 36° Celsius. To ensure patient comfort and prevent shivering during the administration of TTM, sedatives and neuromuscular blockers are administered, preventing an accurate neurological assessment. Despite the challenges of neurological prognostication post-cardiac arrest, current guidelines recommend a multimodal approach, including clinical examination, electrophysiological studies, biomarkers, and neuroimaging, to predict outcomes accurately. Aim: This research sought to develop and evaluate a protocol (Therapeutic Hypothermia and eArly Waking, THAW) for early waking of unconscious Out-of-Hospital-Cardiac-Arrest (OHCA) survivors for the purpose of performing a comprehensive neurological assessment. Methods: A mixed methods approach was used. In the development of the THAW protocol, qualitative data were obtained from a series of focus groups, which included the research team, the National Health Service Ethics committee, a clinical expert panel, OHCA survivors and their family members as well as the Essex Cardiothoracic Centre’s Clinical Governance Committee. Thematic analysis was undertaken to capture the varied perspectives and insights from the different stakeholder groups to inform the THAW protocol interventions. A prospective non-randomised sampling strategy was selected for the implementation of the THAW protocol and neurological indicators collected over a 72-hour period. Results: The THAW protocol assessed the safety and feasibility of an early waking protocol for unconscious survivors of OHCA treated with TTM at 33° Celsius, with a focus on the potential to reduce Intensive Care Unit (ICU) stay and mechanical ventilation duration through early neurological assessments. Despite an expected 50 percent mortality rate, largely due to neurological injuries, findings demonstrated that early waking and extubation with a mean mechanical ventilation duration of 21.4 hours, was feasible for 24 percent of patients, significantly reducing ICU length of stay without adverse events. Of these, seven patients (14%) were able to be transferred from the ICU to the cardiology High Dependency Unit (HDU) within the first 72 hours of their admission. The THAW protocol employed a combination of Intravenous Temperature Management (IVTM) and a counter-shivering strategy to manage core temperature, alongside physiological assessments and standard neurological exams like the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and the Full Outline of UnResponsiveness (FOUR) score. Notably, the neuro biomarker and neurophysiological tests performed as part of the THAW protocol interventions, were not used to inform clinical decision-making, instead to be used in post hoc analysis to maintain objectivity. Conclusion: The THAW protocol demonstrated the safety and feasibility of an early waking protocol in OHCA survivors undergoing TTM at 33° Celsius. Highlighting the potential to expedite neurological prognostication and reduce ICU length of stay and mechanical ventilation duration. Through careful patient selection, the implementation of IVTM with a counter-shivering strategy, early neurological assessments can be integrated into critical care practices without adverse effects on patients.
Investigation of glucose and energy metabolism in eumenorrheic female ultra-runners across the menstrual cycle
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024-12-20) Dole, Andrew
Female athletes, ultra-running, and the utilization of continuous glucose sensors in endurance sports are each individually underrepresented in current literature. When these areas are examined collectively, a substantial gap in knowledge becomes evident. Therefore, the purpose of this PhD study was to collect glucose and energy metabolism data in regularly menstruating female athletes within the complex sporting environment of ultra-running. Initially, a narrative review of the current study methodologies in female performance research was completed. The narrative review aided in the identification of gaps in study design and validation methodologies within female performance research, put forth a suggestive framework for standardizing terminology, and provides a comprehensive list of options for a combined methods approach to menstrual tracking. Subsequently, a randomized, cross-over experimental design was performed with twelve experienced female ultra-runners (age 39 ± 6 y) acting as their own control across menstrual cycle phases during an ultra-marathon simulation. Participants completed a 3-hour fasted outdoor run (FASTED) followed by a one-hour treadmill run (TREAD) where three standardized oral glucose doses were provided, in the mid-follicular (FOL) and mid-luteal phases (LUT). Using a mixed linear model, the menstrual phase was identified as being statistically significant for differences in glucose measurements between CGM and capillary glucose during TREAD (p = 0.02) but not FASTED. Also, the CGM reported glucose levels an average of -0.43 mmol·L-1 (95% CI -0.86, -0.005) and -1.02 mmol·L-1 (95% CI -1.63, -0.42) lower in fasted and fed scenarios respectively when compared to capillary glucose. Median glucose was higher in the LUT (Capillary 0.25-0.29 mmol·L-1, CGM 0.38-0.4 mmol·L-1) both when fasted or supplemented with carbohydrate. Of note, this is the first study to show that glucose is on average higher in the mid-luteal phase as well as observe the avoidance of clinically significant non-diabetic hypoglycemia (< 3.0 mmol·L-1) during 3-hours of fasted running following an 8-hour fast among female ultra-runners. Additionally, higher individual responses of low blood sugar were observed in the follicular phase. Further, there were no significant differences in the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) between the FOL (0.805 ± 0.028) and LUT phases (0.809 ± .035); t (10) -0.401, p = 0.697 during comparable submaximal running intensity (57% ± 7.3% and 57.3% ±7.9% VO2MAX respectively). Post-hoc analysis revealed no significant main effect of RER on glucose levels.
An investigation of factors that influence running footwear selection and subjective perceptions
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024-12-17) Fife, Andrew
Background: Many runners consider shoes important to sport participation. Selecting running shoes requires runners to navigate marketing claims and anecdotal evidence to find shoes that meet their needs. Salespeople in running stores often guide runners in their footwear selection, with runners often selecting shoes based on their subjective perceptions of comfort, performance, and injury risk reduction. The validity of this approach is questionable as the advice from salespeople can lack evidence base and runners’ footwear perceptions may be biased. Although previous research identifies the importance of salespeople in shoe selection, little is known regarding how runners choose their shoes in store. Furthermore, it may be possible to influence runner behaviour through education-based interventions and salespeople recommendations, although the effects of education and recommendation on shoe choice are largely unknown. Aim: To explore the in-store running shoe selection process and the influence of education and expert recommendation on runners’ shoe selection and subjective perceptions. Methods: This Thesis is comprised of seven Chapters, five of which are formatted as academic papers suitable for peer-reviewed publication. First, a systematic review was conducted on factors that influence road running shoe selection. Secondly, 101 runners visiting specialty running stores were surveyed on their running shoe choice, running history, conscious behaviour, and perceived influence of salespeople on their shoe selection. Thirdly, a thematic analysis was used to evaluate how 38 salespeople perceived the salesperson-to-runner interactions. Fourthly, in a double-blind randomised controlled trial (RCT), 56 runners were randomly assigned to a control or educational video prior to purchasing new running shoes. Runners reported shoe selection behaviours, running history, consciousness during purchase, injuries, and subjective perceptions over three months using online surveys. Lastly, in a single-blind crossover RCT, 21 female runners underwent a clinical gait analysis process and ran on a treadmill at a self-selected pace using their own shoes and two experimental shoes with different product descriptions. One shoe was described as a basic running shoe, whereas the other as a shoe gait-matched to their running style. Subjective perceptions including comfort, performance, and injury risk were reported using visual analogue scales (VAS), and spatiotemporal parameters and resultant tibial acceleration were monitored during running trials. Results: Forty factors reported to influence running shoe selection were sourced from the seven studies included in the systematic review. These factors were thematically sub-grouped in five categories: subjective, shoe-specific characteristics, market features, peer evaluation, and runner characteristics. From the 101 runners surveyed in specialty running stores, over 43% of them primarily sought advice from running shoe stores (salespeople) and 25% sought advice from other runners (i.e., family, friends, and running clubs). Runners consistently prioritised fit, comfort, familiarity, and gait analysis during shoe selection. These priorities were aimed at reducing injury risk, with over 20% of surveyed runners in-store reporting sustaining a running-related injury in the previous six months. Based on the 38 interviews conducted, salespeople aimed to build relationships through demonstrating expertise to drive business by making a sale and creating future business. In the RCT providing evidence-based education to runners on shoes, runners that thought less about which shoes to buy were more satisfied at three months post-purchase (89.7 ± 11.2 mm versus 79.8 ± 25.7 mm, p = 0.023) and all runners reported increased subjective performance in new shoes compared to old ones (p = 0.006) based on VAS scores. There was a trend (p = 0.054) for runners to choose different makes and models of shoes after viewing an educational video. In the laboratory-based RCT, runners preferred their own shoes over gait-matched and basic shoes, but rated subjective comfort, performance, and injury risk (p < 0.001, all measures) more favourably in gait-matched than basic shoes, while maintaining similar running biomechanics. Conclusion: Road runners that buy shoes from specialty stores rely on the recommendations of salespeople and other runners, despite the unknown quality of this advice. Salespeople build trust with runners through demonstrating expertise and using gait analysis to sell shoes and create future business. Runners in specialty stores focus on subjective factors derived from trying on shoes in-person, such as comfort and fit, with the main goal of reducing injury risk. The subjective perceptions of footwear of runners are manipulable, which further complicates choosing shoes based on desirable factors such as comfort or risk reduction. Additionally, runners typically buy shoes that are familiar to them despite interacting with scientific evidence that they believe influence their behaviours. Runners that think less consciously about their shoe choice are more satisfied with their shoe selection. Current practice of in-store gait analysis and shoe recommendation may not be effective in meeting runners’ desired goals or be evidence-based, with the most appropriate shoe recommendation practices for individuals a challenge to establish.
Adaptation of the safewards model to the New Zealand context: A mixed-methods evaluative study
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Knauf, Sarah
Background: Mental health inpatient units can provide a sanctuary for people to recover from mental illness. However, research has shown these units to be sites of conflict, in an environment that service users do not experience as therapeutic. To support a therapeutic environment, the safety and wellbeing of service users and staff need protection through reduced conflict and containment rates. Conflict can be physical or verbal aggression, self-harm, suicide attempt, absconding, substance misuse and medication refusal. Containment involves methods used to control conflict, including administration of sedative medication, coerced intramuscular medication, increased level of observation, restraint and seclusion. The Safewards model, originating in the United Kingdom in 2015, proposes 10 interventions to address conflict and containment. These interventions are centred on: therapeutic relationships; person-centeredness; teamwork; and least restrictive care. This research pursued active transformation through codesign of an adapted Safewards model to fit the socio-cultural context of New Zealand. Objective: This thesis with publication describes the adaptation of the Safewards model to the New Zealand context. Cultural adaptation was critical due to significant health outcome disparities between Māori and non-Māori populations and the disproportionate representation of Māori within mental health services. The research sought to discover what a New Zealand model required, what the perspectives of inpatient tangata whai ora and staff were of the developed model and what changes it made to rates of conflict, containment and the ward atmosphere. Participants: Tangata whai ora and staff from the study setting were recruited to participate in focus groups before and after the implementation of the New Zealand Safewards model. Phase one focus groups included 15 staff and three tangata whai ora. Phase three focus groups included 13 staff and four tangata whai ora. Methods: This is a mixed-methods evaluative study structured into three distinct phases, using methods of participatory action research. The adapted Safewards model was implemented for 12 months, with a staggered introduction of 11 interventions. Qualitative data were derived from the thematic analysis of focus groups. Quantitative data were from the Patient-Staff Conflict Checklist, Essen Climate Evaluation Schema, Fidelity Checklist and Te Whatu Ora Waikato service data. Findings: A New Zealand Safewards model must: reflect a Te Ao Māori worldview; align with current practices; adapt Safewards interventions; and gain acceptance. Change management is one process that can reduce barriers to change. The adapted Safewards model reduced conflict, increased patient cohesion and improved the sense of safety perceived from staff and tangata whai ora in the study setting. The outcomes of this study hold the potential to contribute to the formulation and implementation of a New Zealand Safewards model, while also bearing relevance for the international adaptation of Safewards to culturally diverse countries and healthcare systems.
Enhancing strategies to optimise body composition and nutrition in professional rugby union players
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Posthumus, Logan
Body composition and nutrition play a vital role in both health and sporting performance. Optimising energy and macronutrient requirements for a team, position, and/or individual, can enhance an athlete’s preparation, performance, and recovery from training and competition. The requirements of professional Rugby Union (RU) are unique given players can be very large, strong, and powerful, or much smaller, faster, and elusive. Regardless of their size or respective playing position, players must be able to withstand numerous high-impact collisions, yet, be fit enough to play 40-80 minutes at high-intensity week after week. Therefore, positional and/or individualised body composition and fuelling requirements are required. Through a series of seven studies, this PhD thesis aimed to enhance the understanding of body composition and nutritional requirements for professional RU players. Study One assessed the physical and fitness characteristics of elite male professional RU players from New Zealand (NZ) by primary playing position. Study Two examined the physical characteristics of elite female RU union players from NZ between and within different playing positions. Study Three assessed the body composition and anthropometrics by specific playing position and playing level among professional male and female RU players from NZ. A newly developed skinfold-based prediction equation was created to estimate body fat percentage (BF%) among male and female forwards and backs. Study Four explored the competition nutrition practices of elite male professional RU players from NZ over seven-days which included game-day (GD). Study Five examined the dietary intakes of elite male professional RU players from NZ in catered and non-catered environments, both during competition weeks which included GD. Study Six measured the resting metabolic rate (RMR) of professional male RU players from NZ and developed new RU-specific prediction equations. Finally, Study Seven evaluated the in-season energy demands of elite male professional RU players from NZ, providing specific training session and game-play energy demands by position. In Study One, at the end of pre-season, body composition was assessed among elite male professional RU players (n = 39) using sum of eight-site skinfolds (Sum8SF) and Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA), alongside fitness (strength, power, speed, and aerobic fitness) measures. Forwards possessed significantly greater body composition measures compared to backs. Both forwards and backs within this study were taller, heavier, and leaner than players from previous studies in the northern hemisphere. Among forwards, Sum8SF demonstrated very large correlations with relative power and speed measures, while backs demonstrated large correlations between Sum8SF and aerobic fitness. Fat mass and BF% demonstrated very large correlations with speed and aerobic fitness measures among forwards. Skinfolds, fat mass, and BF% relate strongly with key fitness characteristics required for elite male professional RU performance. In Study Two, the body composition of elite female RU players (n = 30) was assessed using Sum8SF and DXA during the in-season period. Forwards were significantly taller, heavier, and possessed greater Sum8SF than backs. Forwards also possessed significantly greater total and regional body composition measures compared to backs. Healthy bone mineral density measures were observed among both forwards and backs. Significant differences were also present among forward positional groups. Study Three extended on from Studies One and Two by examining the body composition (using DXA) and anthropometric (using Sum8SF) differences between specific playing positions and playing levels among professional male (n = 104) and female (n = 75) RU players. Elite players demonstrated significantly higher levels of lean mass than sub-elite players. Relationships between BF% and Sum8SF were large among female backs, and very large among male and female forwards and male backs. A new BF% prediction equation was developed using Sum8SF among male forward and back positions, and female forward and back positions. In Study Four, elite male professional RU players (n = 34) from NZ completed dietary intakes in-season using the Snap-N-Send method during a seven-day competition week which included GD. Forwards reported significantly higher absolute energy intakes, but no significant differences were observed for mean seven-day relative carbohydrate, protein, and fat intakes. Both forwards and backs reported their highest energy and carbohydrate intakes for the week on GD, with ~62% of total kcal being consumed prior to the start of the game. Players fell short of daily sports nutrition guidelines for carbohydrate and appeared to “eat to intensity” by increasing or decreasing energy and carbohydrate intake based on the training load. Study Five, extended on from Study Four by examining the dietary intakes of elite male professional RU players (n = 12) in catered and non-catered environments during two seven-day competition weeks which both included GD. No significant differences were observed for relative carbohydrate intake between catered and non-catered environments among forwards and backs. Whereas, mean seven-day absolute energy, relative protein, and relative fat intakes were significantly higher in the catered compared to non-catered environment among forwards. Meanwhile, backs presented non-significantly higher energy and macronutrient intakes within a catered compared to a non-catered environment. In Study Six, the RMR of male professional RU players (n = 108) were examined using indirect calorimetry, which were then compared to nine commonly used prediction equations. Compared to measured RMR for the group, seven of the nine commonly used prediction equations significantly under-estimated RMR, meanwhile one equation significantly over-estimated RMR. This led to the development and validation of two new RU-specific prediction equations which determined that the strongest predictors for this group were fat-free mass (FFM) alone, followed by body mass (BM) alone. Lastly, Study Seven examined the game-play, daily, and session specific exercise energy expenditure alongside energy intake during a competition week among elite male professional RU players (n = 24). Each player’s FFM was measured using DXA, which then allowed energy availability to be calculated. Changes in body mass and Sum8SF were then measured four-weeks apart to determine changes based on energy availability. This study also examined RMR on a rest day (three-days prior to GD [GD-3]) during the competition week and the morning after the game (GD+1). Significant differences between days, training sessions, game-play, and RMR between days were observed. Significant differences between energy availability groups and changes in body mass and Sum8SF were also present. In summary, the series of studies in this thesis provide valuable insight into the body composition and nutrition requirements of professional RU players. Practical strategies are provided to help practitioners estimate BF% if laboratory-based methods are not attainable, which can then inform FFM to be used in the newly developed FFM-based RMR prediction equation. However, a BM-based RMR prediction equation was also developed in case Sum8SF and FFM measures are not attainable. Finally, when the kcal·kg·min-1 factors are used to determine game-play and/or specific training session exercise energy expenditure, energy requirements can be determined specifically for professional RU players to optimise fuelling and/or body composition change strategies.
Acceptance culture theory: A constructivist grounded theory on bullying of junior doctors in the New Zealand healthcare system
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Bashir, Sarah
Workplace bullying has been a serious workplace concern for centuries, with individuals confronting various forms of abuse, mistreatment and bullying at work. Historical accounts indicate that the powerful Egyptian pharaohs strategically lured tribal people to work at their construction sites, which led to submission, slavery and bullying. Regardless of the era, the enduring nature of bullying issues illustrates that individuals can misuse their power by using bullying to establish control and authority over other individuals. In contemporary environments such as New Zealand (NZ) healthcare organisations, workplace bullying remains a significant threat that exposes healthcare workers, including junior doctors, to health and safety issues. Despite literature documenting the prevalence and harmful impacts of bullying on NZ junior doctors, there is a lack of theoretical explanations behind bullying in this context. This notable gap in understanding the explanations of bullying impedes effective prevention and management of workplace bullying among NZ junior doctors. The research aimed to explain the bullying process among NZ junior doctors with the objective of facilitating prevention and management. Twenty doctors (n=20) from various specialities in medicine and surgery participated in in-depth interviews. Data collection and analysis were guided by the Constructivist Grounded Theory (CGT) approach. Seven core categories resulted from the data analysis. Six provided explanations of bullying, highlighting the complex interplay of many factors, including social and individual characteristics of the bullies and victims, team dynamics, hierarchy, organisational culture, systemic factors, and acceptance culture. The seventh core category described the prevention and management of bullying. CGT analysis of the data led to the development of Acceptance Culture Theory (ACT), which is the contribution of this study. ACT outlines the social process of acceptance of bullying at multiple levels of individuals’ ecological systems. An acceptance of bullying at the micro level caused individuals to endure and accept bullying, with effects seen at multiple levels (micro, meso, exo and macro) that perpetuated an acceptance culture of bullying in the individuals’ work environments, keeping them trapped in a cycle of bullying. Effective prevention and management are possible by breaking the acceptance culture using comprehensive approaches encompassing macro, meso, exo, and micro levels. Alleviating hierarchal structures, frequent changes in leadership, organisational support, changes in policies and procedures, and a robust reporting system are critical for the effective prevention and management of bullying. By addressing the root causes of workplace bullying, a safe and healthy workplace can be offered for NZ junior doctors.
Enterprises’ sustainability orientation: A natural language processing approach
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Culpi-Mann, Evelize
Sustainability in business is widely viewed as a strategic orientation decision. However, comparatively, little is known about assessing sustainability orientation and its drivers and implications for enterprises. This thesis examines sustainability orientation from a diverse perspective and focuses on sustainability orientation using corporate narratives. Specifically, this thesis harnesses the power of natural language processing (NLP) techniques, which is a field of artificial intelligence (AI), as a tool for research in extracting insights from textual communication. The thesis comprises three studies along with a cohesive synthesis of their implications. First, I begin by drawing on the vast literature on corporate social sustainability (CSR) to explore contextual factors that drive enterprises' behaviour towards sustainability. Specifically, the results illustrate that CSR practices are associated with external constituents' scrutiny levels. It is strongly related to political factors and social visibility and partially to media exposure. In addition, the study provides evidence to illustrate that positive influences on CSR practices may have been short-lived when a longer time horizon is considered. Second, by exploring small and middle-sized enterprises (SMEs), I elucidated the implications of a communicated sustainability orientation strategy on enterprises' economic performance. I used the communication of social values as a signal of sustainability orientation and explored its impacts, also considering social actions as an additional signal of sustainability orientation. The findings suggest that the effect of communicating social values on economic performance varies between social enterprises and traditional commercial enterprises. Unlike traditional commercial enterprises, social enterprises do not achieve economic performance advantages by communicating social values. Instead, it is the social actions of social enterprises that positively influence economic performance. Third, I explore sustainability orientation through the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) lenses. The last empirical study explores the effect of a communicated SDG orientation strategy on the economic performance of traditional commercial enterprises and social enterprises. The results demonstrated a positive relationship between the communication of a narrow set of SDGs and enterprises' economic performance. The extent of this effect is similar between social and traditional commercial enterprises. The results take on the meaning that stakeholders might appreciate an enterprise's SDG orientation strategy that concentrates on a narrow set of SDGs within distinct purpose-driven institutional contexts. This thesis is an effort to increase transparency about critical aspects of enterprises' sustainability orientation: its assessment, influential factors and implications for economic performance. This doctoral thesis provides significant practical and theoretical contributions to understanding the complex dynamics between sustainability orientation and business context. By focusing on the evolutionary nature of social norms, this research provides an aggregated view of how environmental pressures affect an enterprise's practices towards sustainability. This thesis also offers an initial step in examining the relationship between a communicated sustainability orientation strategy and enterprises' economic performance. It highlights that social enterprises and traditional commercial enterprises experience different external pressures and should tailor their sustainability orientation strategies to their specific context. Moreover, this thesis reinforces that innovative NLP approaches can overcome challenges in measuring sustainability orientation.
Effects of environmental and behavioural factors on fish swimming performance and passage success
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Burbach Crawford, Rachel
Instream structures like culverts, dams, and other anthropogenic barriers fragment river networks worldwide, posing a significant threat to the connectivity and migration of freshwater fish communities. Designing effective fish passage solutions requires a comprehensive understanding of the swimming abilities, behaviours, and environmental tolerances of diverse fish species. This thesis aims to address this need by investigating the factors influencing the swimming performance and passage success of multiple migratory fish species in New Zealand, with implications for improving fish passage design and connectivity restoration efforts. Two methods for assessing swimming performance, critical swimming speed (Ucrit) and sprint swimming speed (Usprint), were compared across two fish species. Results revealed no significant statistical difference between swimming speeds estimated using Ucrit versus Usprint protocols for the pelagic Galaxias maculatus and the benthic-associated Galaxias fasciatus. This suggests that shorter time-stepped swimming speeds tests can be used to measure swimming abilities of benthic-associated species, allowing comparisons across a broader range of fish for passage design. Inter- and intraspecies variation in swimming speeds across nine migratory New Zealand fish species was quantified. Galaxias brevipinnis, Galaxias argenteus, and Galaxias postvectis exhibited the strongest swimming abilities. Galaxias maculatus was among the weakest swimmers. Body length was positively correlated with maximum speed, indicating that barriers select against weaker swimming species and smaller individuals within species. Maximum allowable culvert velocities should be significantly lower than previous standards to accommodate most individuals across species. The impact of varying acute water temperatures on critical swimming speeds of four migratory species was investigated. At higher temperatures (26°C), three species (Galaxias maculatus, Galaxias brevipinnis, Gobiomorphus cotidianus) exhibited significant reductions in swimming performance compared to lower temperatures (8°C, 15°C). In contrast, Galaxias fasciatus showed no water temperature-related changes. These findings underscore the importance of designing fish passages to accommodate acute temperature fluctuations, to ensure successful migration under changing environmental conditions. Potential benefits of collective navigation were explored using the small-bodied Galaxias maculatus. Experiments with an artificial velocity barrier revealed that fish swimming in groups had faster entry and passage rates, as well as lower metabolic rates indicating reduced energy expenditure, compared to solitary individuals. These findings highlight the importance of designing fish passes to facilitate movement of gregarious species by accommodating group dynamics. The effect of repeated exposure on passage performance through an experimental raceway with high water velocities was examined. Over five consecutive days, passage success increased significantly, suggesting a role for cognition and spatial memory in improving passage performance. However, approach and entry rates did not improve, indicating other factors like attraction flows or fish physiology may be important for locating and entering structures. This thesis provides insights into the factors influencing swimming performance and passage success for migratory New Zealand species. By studying variation across species in water temperature effects, group behaviour, and cognitive abilities, this research provides a comprehensive understanding to guide the development of more inclusive and effective fish passage solutions. The findings highlight the importance of accounting for many sources of variation when designing instream structures to facilitate unimpeded fish migration.
Temporary migration and wage inequality in Aotearoa New Zealand
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Islam, Ahmed Zohirul
This thesis seeks to explore the relationship between temporary migration and wage inequality in Aotearoa New Zealand. The transition in migration policy preferences in Aotearoa New Zealand, moving away from traditional source countries to a human capital regime, and subsequent changes in policies, particularly in the past two decades, have influenced the growth of temporary migrants and alterations in their nationality composition. Moreover, migration policies and regulations establish differentiated status among temporary migrants based on skills and visa status, incorporating limitations on changing employers, the type of employment opportunities available to migrants, and the duration of their visas. In this context, this thesis argues that the interplay between the stratified status of temporary migrants shaped by the migration system and their nationality composition, along with other attributes such as skills, occupations, and demographic composition, may impact wage inequality among this group. The thesis includes three interconnected quantitative studies to offer a detailed exploration of the relationship between temporary migration and wage inequality in Aotearoa New Zealand, analysing different linked administrative data available in the Integrated Data Infrastructure of Statistics New Zealand. The first study focuses on the effects of high volume of international migration on income inequality in the labour market at the national level. The population sub-groups decomposition approach is employed to disentangle within-group and between-group contributions of different population sub-groups to overall income inequality. The study reveals that recent migrants, predominantly constituting temporary migrants, experience the highest level of income inequality compared to earlier immigrants and the New Zealand-born population. The second study investigates the role of multiple factors on wage inequality among temporary migrants, employing the Shapley-value regression-based decomposition approach. The study identifies two main factors that influence wage inequality in the context of temporary migration: the migration system, which imposes varying conditions for migrants based on skills and visa status, including restrictions on employer switching, types of employment, and visa duration; and the composition of migrants, emphasizing how shifts in the nationality composition can impact wage inequality due to racialized discrimination in the workforce. The third study investigates the wage gap between temporary migrants from UK, Ireland, North America, and South Africa (group A) and those from other nationalities (group B), given that migrants in group A are predominantly white while those in group B may be perceived as racialized minorities distinct from the native population of Aotearoa New Zealand. The study uses the unconditional quantile decomposition method to examine whether the wage gap results from nationality-specific differences in migrants' characteristics or variations in nationality-specific returns to these characteristics. The findings reveal that the structural effect is the primary factor explaining the wage gap across the entire wage distribution, possibly indicating nationality-based discrimination. The impact of this discrimination decreases at the bottom and middle quantiles over time but shows a slight decline at the top end of the wage distribution. The study highlights that the migration system, which establishes a stratified status among migrants based on skills and remuneration bands, coupled with the nationality composition of temporary migrants, may contribute to the decrease in the wage gap at the bottom and middle quantiles. The significance of these insights lies in the finding that, instead of serving as a neutral mechanism to address labour market gaps, the rules and regulations within temporary migration systems play a role in creating the wage inequality among temporary migrants. Overall, the thesis provides both a detailed examination of inequality as it pertains to temporary migrants as well as providing key insights into the immigration dynamics associated with employment, migration policy, nationality and income. This dual emphasis on both inequality and immigration enriches the research, making noteworthy contributions to the literature on temporary migration, discussions surrounding social and economic inequality, and inquiries into social inclusion within Aotearoa New Zealand.
Heritage-making in Aotearoa planning: Unsettling norms in contested urban space
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024-12-16) Hill, Carolyn Joy
Heritage is currently a high-profile and often contentious topic in urban environments. As cities face growing challenges of climate change, intensification needs and cultural contestation, state-mandated heritage continues to have a significant influence on how cities are perceived, whose pasts are remembered, and what future change can be. However, this is being increasingly tested as urban pressures bring questions of who has a right to the city to the fore. Situated within the field of critical heritage studies, this thesis critically examines how heritage is officially “made” in the cities of Aotearoa New Zealand, and how emerging views and values may reshape these established norms for more spatially and culturally just futures. Focused on urban locations within the so-called “CANZUS” states (Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America (USA)), the thesis centres on statutory heritage – the objects and places that are identified and managed within state-mandated planning systems that create dominant assumptions about what is worthy of protection. As such, its contribution is at the intersection of heritage and planning as it critically queries heritage’s future legacy claims and considers what other legacies may be imagined. The thesis includes four key enquiries. First, it explores the history of state-led heritage-making in Aotearoa, focusing on the city of Tāmaki Makaurau / Auckland. It examines the tension between contemporary urban intensification priorities and heritage / special character regulation, critiquing the narrative of heritage as a “public good” given its entanglement with spatial and cultural inequity. Second, it studies three cases of urban heritage protest across Australia, Aotearoa and the USA. These cases expose the continued inadequacy of statutory heritage-making for Indigenous and emerging aspirations, as normative approaches are embedded not only by the heritage sector itself but by the planning and legislation systems that structure its mandate. Third, the thesis explores the current thinking of those shaping and working within heritage’s statutory framing across Aotearoa. It finds that heritage policy leaders are cognisant of, and concerned to change, heritage’s entrenched Eurocentricity, expert dominance and material orientation, but that shifting established practice remains a multi-dimensional challenge. Finally, it investigates the perspectives of young emerging planners in the city of Kirikiriroa / Hamilton, which again foregrounds the obstacles to displacing systemic norms but also highlights planning policy’s significant potential to shape different heritage futures. This thesis has important implications both for Aotearoa’s urban environments and for CANZUS cities more broadly. Grounded in contemporary real-world examples, it not only exposes heritage’s imbrication with issues of urban inequity but its deeper role in maintaining settler state security, making “home” on Indigenous land. It finds that unpicking this legacy will involve more than adding the heritages of “others” into the existing canon. Rather, deeper reconsideration of heritage’s societal purpose as part of Indigenous, multi-storied and dynamic cities is required. Finally, it highlights the central role for planning in transforming the heritage field, both through statutory policy reform and through integration with broader urban objectives. However, planners will need to be better equipped for critical engagement with heritage if they are to creatively support more inclusive, democratic and malleable alternatives.
Tribal guns, tribal gunners : A study of acculturation by Maori of European military technology during the New Zealand inter-tribal musket wars
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 1997) Bentley, Trevor William
The Musket Wars were New Zealand’s longest and most costly war. Some 20,000 Maori perished in the raids, battles and sieges that convulsed the tribal societies during the 1820’s and 1830’s. The rise of powerful musket armies set in train forty major hekes or tribal migrations that emptied vast reaches of country by 1840, paving the way for European settlement that proceeded largely unopposed until the 1860’s. There is little known about the nature of Maori warfare in this period for the Musket Wars have yet to receive the same kind of intense study currently being given by New Zealand historians to the Northern and New Zealand Wars. While other nations have conducted exhaustive research into the military history of their indigenous people, the Musket Wars remain New Zealand’s least known war. The paucity of information on inter-tribal; warfare in this period is sourced in the fact that native warfare was actively discouraged by the missionaries, judged barbaric by most early visitors and regarded as an inferior form of warfare by settlers and English military men. Later nineteenth century writers perpetuated a distorted view of the Musket Wars as chaotic inter-tribal conflicts in which Maori fought and destroyed Maori. This distorted view has its origins in the two widely divergent systems of values that operated in nineteenth century New Zealand and in the dominance of Victorian ideas about race and colonialism. This thesis is revisionist only in its attempt to demolish the entrenched colonial view of Maori musket warfare as disordered and exclusively Maori. It endeavours to fill specific gaps that exist in the research on this period by examining the role and purpose of the European gun trading enterprise in New Zealand and the extent of European involvement in Maori warfare. The thesis explores the deployment and effectiveness of European guns during the three phases of Maori warfare that characterise the period; predatory raiding, the great rakau-musket battles and the musket to musket conflicts of the 1830’s. The thesis also develops the theme that while the Musket Wars were shaped by non-Maori influences they were distinctly Maori in style. While the bulk of evidence is provided by contemporary European observers and nineteenth century historians, every attempt has been made to provide a more balanced picture of Maori warfare by reporting Maori experiences wherever possible. The thesis consequently draws on current Maori oral testimony, the evidence of contemporary Maori eyewitness and the substantial and well developed body of written tribal history currently available. The Musket Wars represent a fascinating but largely forgotten military age in New Zealand where Maori armies of unprecedented size employed powerful armaments of flintlock guns and ships cannon on long distance campaigns against remote enemies. This period has provided a unique opportunity to research the ways an indigenous warrior society acculturated European firearms technology in established tribal rituals and in warfare, independent of European military influences and in a purely Maori context. Most importantly the Musket Wars have provided the opportunity to examine Maori tactical developments through the critical stage between classical Maori warfare and the clashes with British and Colonial forces during the Northern war of 1845 and New Zealand wars of the 1860’s.
Development of video quality metrics based on psychovisual models of early vision
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024-12-05) Mozhaeva, Anastasia
Streaming video incurs many distortions during processing, compression, storage, and transmission, all of which can reduce the user's perceived video quality. Developing adaptive video transmission methods that increase the efficient use of existing bandwidth and reduce storage space while preserving visual quality requires quality metrics that accurately describe how people perceive distortion. A severe problem for developing new video quality metrics is limited data on how the human visual system processes spatial and temporal information simultaneously. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that the few data recognized by the scientific community, collected in the middle of the last century, used the ideas of obsolete display technology and were subject to medical intervention during collection, which does not guarantee a proper description of the conditions under which media content is currently consumed. As a result, modern video quality metrics do not provide stable and reliable data for predicting the subjective assessment of user quality. This research aims to investigate how the metrics being developed are made more efficient for assessing video quality by including new data from the psychophysical early vision model in the metrics. The work proposed in this thesis comprises three main contributions: Firstly, the development of a novel method, software, and test equipment for research and measurement of the characteristics of the human visual system using modern display systems. Secondly, the refinement of the parameters of a multidimensional model of human contrast sensitivity appropriate to modern display technology of viewing conditions. The contrast sensitivity function works like a filter through which visual stimuli must pass to be perceived by the observer. Only video artefacts in the passband region can be humanly perceived. Thirdly, the creation of a new full-reference and the first non-reference video quality metrics which consider the psychophysical features of the user's video experience. That provides stability in predicting the user's subjective rating of a video. Among the three contributions of this thesis, first, a method for researching and measuring the characteristics of human visual systems on modern displays. In the proposed thesis, 27,840 visibility thresholds of spatio-temporal sinusoidal variations were measured by a new method using different spatial sizes and temporal modulation rates. The obtained data is 96% more than any current contrast sensitivity function dataset and best describes a human's perception of video artefacts on a modern display. A multidimensional model of human contrast sensitivity in modern conditions of video content presentation is proposed for the first time based on new large-scale data and demonstrated that the presented visibility model has a distinct advantage for further development of media content transfer technologies. Since there is a limited number of video evaluation metrics based on fundamental knowledge about the work of the human visual system, a new full-reference metric is herein proposed. This proposed video quality metric extends the peak signal-to-noise ratio metric to include human visual system features. Finally, a new non-reference video quality metric that includes the psychophysical features of the user's video experience with stability in predicting the user's subjective rating of a video is proposed. The experimental results show that the proposed video quality metric achieves 81% more consistent performance in predicting user subjective quality among commonly used non-reference video quality metrics and comparable consistent performance to full-reference metrics on three independent video datasets. The thesis also presents a large-scale database suitable for testing video streaming quality under video compression with artefacts, forming a learning base for future video quality metrics. The final dataset comprises 4.1 million video quality perceptual thresholds. The new database will contribute to the solution of a strong need for non-reference video quality metrics for user-generated video content to prevent loss of video quality caused by distortion during recording, compression and signal transmission.
Concepts of proportionality in investment protection of patents and access to health resources
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Aydin, Dilara
This thesis seeks to demonstrate why investment protection of patented health resources is disproportionate and how the disproportionate power can be mitigated. The argument asserts that the protection of patented health resources under international investment agreements (“IIAs”) goes beyond the intended purpose of intellectual property (“IP”) law and can hinder access to health resources. While IP rights are significant components of IIAs, their inclusion within the scope of investment allows investors to challenge measures against their IP rights through the investor-state dispute mechanism (“ISDS”). A measure can be subject to a review of arbitral tribunals even though such measure serves the public interest. The ISDS system imposes an additional legal layer for states. Such layer can hinder the rights to have a healthy life, rights to life and living a life with dignity, conflicting states’ human rights obligations. Therefore, this thesis argues that investment protection disproportionately benefits the patent holders. Consequently, this thesis scrutinises how this disproportionate benefit can be mitigated. To this end, this thesis investigates case law in investment arbitration where arbitral tribunals have applied (ii)judicial proportionality to determine if judicial proportionality can mitigate the disproportionate protection of patented health resources as an investment. This thesis further reveals midlevel proportionality in newly concluded IIAs where the purpose is to restore disproportionate investment protection of patented health resources. This thesis presents the first comprehensive analysis on proportionality principle in the context of patent and international investment law.
PISA for development and its impact on education policy and development in Cambodia
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024-11-04) Khan, Chenda
In recent years, the right to education has emerged as a cornerstone of UNESCO’s Education Agenda 2030 and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4). Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015, SDG4 serves as a blueprint for developing countries to achieve a more equitable and sustainable future. In 2016, UNESCO established a steering committee, comprising UNESCO, UNICEF, the World Bank, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), to facilitate the global implementation of SDG4. To monitor the progress of developing countries in achieving SDG4, the OECD persuaded UNESCO to leverage one of its International Large-Scale Assessments (ILSAs) – PISA for Development (PISA-D). Building on the established Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), PISA-D operates through two distinct forms of power that operate through Cambodia as a state administration and through Cambodia as a population. The first is referred to in this thesis as ‘governance’ and refers to the ways in which the state administration, officials and executives are steered to introducing education reforms and policies. The other is referred to as ‘disciplinary power’, which operates through examination and treatment, imposing particular forms of accountability onto the school system including school principals, teachers and students. These two forms of power may enable the OECD to place Cambodia under its policy directives through the PISA-D programme. I understand that the articulation of these two forms of power tends to be a form or iteration of coloniality. The overarching objective of this thesis is to analyse how and why Cambodia chose to become involved in PISA-D and what have been the local impacts. I employed some elements of a document analysis on academic and media sources to deepen my understanding of the OECD's educational initiatives through PISA and PISA-D. This analysis began with a review of PISA's application in member countries, providing essential context for studying the PISA-D program itself. The thesis further explores the tensions arising during the enactment of PISA-D in Cambodia, offering a nuanced perspective on the coloniality associated with PISA(-D). This exploration was enriched through semi-structured interviews with local stakeholders to understand how these tensions manifest in practice. The thesis argues that Cambodia's decision to join the PISA-D programme was naive and pressured. Enacted through the Ministry's EQAD with support from the World Bank – the OECD’s strategic partner, the PISA-D programme produced results, which were meant for the World Bank to justify the urgent implementation of SBM as the only way to enhance accountability in Cambodian schools. Influenced by these two said IOs, Cambodian leaders were led to believe that assessing students internationally was essential for local education reform and would yield valuable evidence for policy making, which has increasingly focused on generating human capital solely for national economic growth – identified as neoliberalisation of Cambodian education. Overall, there is much evidence that the OECD has used the PISA-D programme to subject Cambodia to the negative effects of globalisation, the power of PISA and ultimately the OECD’s policy directives.
The influence of income on subjective well-being: An empirical study in transitional country of Vietnam
(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024-11-30) La, Binh
Abstracts The pursuit of happiness is not merely a personal endeavour but also a societal imperative, influencing governmental policies and individual well-being. In the realm of economics, the correlation between income and happiness has long been a subject of scrutiny, particularly the phenomenon known as the income paradox. This paradox, first highlighted by Easterlin in 1974, questions why despite rising incomes, average happiness levels often remain stagnant. Numerous studies have since delved into this puzzle, with a predominant focus on relative income and income inequality. However, there remains a notable research gap on this subject in transitional countries, especially Vietnam. This thesis aims to enrich the empirical study of the influence of income on subjective well-being, in part to elucidate the income - happiness paradox in Vietnam. This thesis includes three papers. The first paper employs panel data sourced from the Viet Nam Access to Resources Household Survey (VARHS), spanning three periods — 2012, 2014, and 2016. Utilising fixed effect estimates, it assessed the impact of absolute income and three specifications of external comparison income on individual happiness. The focal point of this paper lies in categorizing subgroups based on relative income rather than absolute income. This approach enables the removal of conflicting relationships, allowing for a clearer understanding of how social comparison income influences individual happiness. Findings suggest that individuals compare themselves to multiple reference groups, both upwards to those better off and downwards to those worse off. However, statistically significant results emerge only when one comparison outweighs the other, or when both comparisons align either upward or downward impact. Intriguingly, the outcome shifts from asymmetry to near symmetry when the interactive effects among reference groups change from opposition to alignment. The second paper presents a pioneering investigation into the impact of self-perceived economic status on subjective well-being. This study employs panel data sourced from VARHS, covering three periods: 2016, 2018, and 2020. By employing fixed effect estimates, it investigates the dynamic interplay between absolute and relative self-perceived household economic status within the commune and subjective well-being. This exploration is conducted by applying four primary specifications and an analysis of the interaction between increases in per capita income and shifts in household economic status. The findings reveal that present self-perceived economics status positively influences personal happiness, while past self-perceived economics status has the opposite effect. Additionally, the influence of comparisons between present and past self-perceived relative income can exhibit symmetry or asymmetry, depending on the approach. Moreover, a positive relationship is identified between the distance in a household's current and past economic household rank and individual happiness. External comparison is asymmetrical and is a stronger factor than internal income comparison. Despite an increase in absolute income, overall personal SWB is not guaranteed to rise, underscoring the pivotal role of the perception of household economic position or relative income in determining individual happiness. The third and final paper represents one of the earliest studies to examine the influence of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction, employing an instrumental variable approach. It is also a pioneering study in utilising data from the VARHS of 2020 in investigating the effects of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction in Vietnam. The results highlight the adverse impact of perceived income inequality on individuals' overall life satisfaction, with controls for endogeneity further emphasizing this effect. These findings underscore the importance of government initiatives aimed at reducing economic disparities to enhance individual subjective well-being.

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