Arts and Social Sciences Papers

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/2

This collection houses research from Te Kura Toi School of Arts, Te Kura Whatu Oho Mauri School of Psychology, and Te Kura Aronui School of Social Sciences at the University of Waikato.

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Amplifying Indigenous voices: Four Indigenous publishing houses
(Johns Hopkins University Press, 2025) Scaletti, Maria; Barbour, Julie Renee; Daly, Nicola; Vanderschantz, Nicholas
Existing research in the field of Indigenous children’s literature is sparse but growing. A notable gap in the literature is the paucity of insight into Indigenous picturebook publishing. In preparation for a larger study of Indigenous publishing processes, in this study, we conducted a website analysis to explore the work of Indigenous publishing houses. From this data, we constructed four case studies focusing on Magabala Books (Australia), Black Bears and Blueberries Publishing (USA), Theytus Books (Canada), and Inhabit Media (Canada). Additionally, we present a close analysis of four recently published picturebooks from the publishing houses (one from each). In this article, we provide insights into the key themes underpinning the four Indigenous publishers, including a commitment to storytelling, collaboration, and education; the amplification and prioritization of Indigenous languages; the place of external funding; incorporation of Indigenous art; and the educational background of the authors and illustrators.
“If it don’t talk, it's not whakapapa data”: Conceptualising whakapapa data in a digital age
(Wiley, 2026-02) Pēpi Tarapa‐Dewes, Ella; Kukutai, Tahu
In Te Ao Māori, whakapapa is a sacred framework that connects all aspects of existence. Whakapapa is highly sensitive information and a taonga that requires active protection. But what can be considered whakapapa data in a digital age where data linkage is ubiquitous and the boundaries between personal and collective information are increasingly blurred? We explore this question through a case study with Ngāti Tiipa, a hapū that is actively engaged in its own data sovereignty research. Reflexive thematic analysis of whānau kōrero identified three types of whakapapa data, each denoting a specific kind of connection: 1) between relatives, both living and deceased; 2) between people and places of cultural significance; and 3) between people and the spiritual realm. Whānau concepts of whakapapa data tend to be context‐specific, suggesting that it is more useful to think of whakapapa data as dynamic and relational rather than a fixed, inherent attribute.
Remediating the art of music video [in Malleable boundaries - Creative modes of practice and inquiry in the Academy]
(University of Waikato, 2024-11-15) Perrott, Lisa; Hill, Rodrigo; Davidson, Cerys
The concept of remediation implies that new media attain cultural distinctiveness by paying homage to, and refashioning earlier media (Bolter & Grusin, 1999). Having explored remediation in my book David Bowie and the Art of Music Video (2023), I extended this project by employing creative practice research to test the flexibility of this concept. The affordances of several mediums and materials were explored to remediate three images from music videos previously analysed for my book. Title of painting #1: Remediating Life On Mars? When directing the music video for Life on Mars? (1973), photographer Mick Rock used 16mm film to remediate the materiality and two dimensionality of Pop Art and Japanese paintings of the Edo period known as Ukiyo-e. As an extension of this process, I experimented with the fluidity of watercolour paint to remediate these artforms in relation to the affordances of music video and still photography. Title of painting #2: Divine Heroes When directing Heroes (1977), Stanley Dorfman sculpted with light and film to remediate Byzantine paintings and sculpture of the Renaissance period. Paying homage to these mediums, and referencing the Divine Mercy paintings of 1934 and 1944, I experimented with the vibrant hues and light-sculpting properties of watercolour paints and gold leaf. Title of painting #3: Ashes to Dada When directing Ashes to Ashes (1980) an accident with camera settings enabled David Bowie and David Mallet to exploit the affordances of videotape, thus producing a unique remediation of avant-garde films of the 1920s. While using watercolour paint to rework the estranged colours and fuzzy materiality of videotape, my use of the cut-up method pays homage to the aleatory process associated with this video, to the Dada movement, and to the artistic process of Tristan Tzara, William Burroughs and David Bowie.
Truth as a cultural value
(Taylor and Francis Group, 2026) Wyatt, Jeremy
Gila Sher (2025) puts forward a theory of truth that is founded on a thought-provoking strategy for thinking about truth’s nature. According to this strategy, in attempting to develop an account of truth’s nature, we should foreground the fact that truth is an intrinsic human value. In this brief commentary, I will argue that truth is best described as a cultural, rather than a human, value. I will then explore the ramifications that this has for Sher’s strategy for thinking about truth’s nature.
Twardowski, rationality, and post-truth
(УДК 1(438)(092):321.7(062.552), 2026) Ulatowski, Joseph W.; Карівця, Ігоря
If Twardowski is correct about rationality, then truth comes in degrees. If truth comes in degrees, then we must replace a classical conception of truth with a nearby alternative. Post-truth accepts that statements need not be true or false but may be scalar. Thus, Twardowski's own vision of rationality (logistic anti-irrationalism) would have to accept that truth comes in degrees.
English doesn’t need protecting in New Zealand – But other languages do
(The Conversation, 2026-03-06) Calude, Andreea S.; Wong, Sidney; James, Jesin
Anyone tuning into political debates about the recently introduced English Language Bill might be led to think New Zealand’s most widely spoken tongue is endangered. The bill, which forms part of a coalition deal between the New Zealand First and National parties and aims to make English an official language in Aotearoa, has been widely criticised as unnecessary. One opposition MP branded it an “answer to a problem that does not exist”. Indeed, English is spoken by more than 4.75 million New Zealanders – 96% of the population – and dominates the nation’s television, radio, classrooms and workplaces. One reason for designating languages “official” is to protect and support minority or marginalised languages, often those under threat. Can we really say the same of English?
Truth as a cultural value
(2025) Wyatt, Jeremy
In this talk, I will focus primarily on a strategy for thinking about truth's nature that has been recently proposed by Gila Sher. This strategy—which I call the ‘value-first strategy’—has it that we should first observe that truth is an intrinsic human value and then develop an account of truth’s nature on the basis of this observation. I will begin by arguing that truth is best described as a cultural, rather than a human, value. I will then argue that because truth is a cultural value, the value-first strategy compels us to seriously consider some novel ideas about truth’s nature that are respectively grounded in discussions about truth pluralism and some remarks by Alfred Tarski. To close, I will briefly illustrate how truth's status as a cultural value bears on current sociopolitical debates which concern the value of truth.
Keynote speech on freedom of religion
(2025) Chevalier-Watts, Juliet
Keynote speech on religious freedom at the conference titled: Freedom to do, to be, and to become: Enhancing individuals’ opportunities to believe and live as they choose within the framework of the law. The conference was convened by The International Center for Law & Religion Studies at Brigham Young University Law School (United States) in partnership with The University of Waikato Te Piringa – Faculty of Law (New Zealand), The Religious Freedom and Human Dignity Initiative at Brigham Young University–Hawaii (United States), and the J. Reuben Clark Law Society (New Zealand).
Mindful publishing in the AI era: An editor’s perspective on trends, challenges, and insights in mindfulness research
(International Conference on Mindfulness (ICM), 2024) Medvedev, Oleg N.
In an age where AI influences many facets of academic pursuit, the dissemination of mindfulness research is undergoing significant transformation. This workshop delivers an editor's perspective on the latest trends in mindfulness research, navigating through the possibilities and perils that AI presents to scholarly publishing. Our focus shifts to the core trends revolutionizing how mindfulness research reaches academic and public domains. We delve into how AI impacts the success rates of paper acceptance and publication, and the broader implications for researchers striving to contribute novel insights in a highly competitive space. This discussion will outline the increased efficiency and new opportunities for disseminating research findings, while also considering the challenges of maintaining rigorous peer-review standards in the fast-paced digital era. From an editorial vantage point, we share insights on harnessing AI to enhance the visibility and impact of mindfulness studies, and how this influences the themes and narratives that gain prominence in the literature. The talk will reflect on the emerging challenges such as ensuring the ethical use of AI, addressing the digital divide in research accessibility, and preserving the integrity of mindfulness as a discipline amidst rapid technological change. This workshop presentation aims to equip researchers with an understanding of current publishing trends, stimulate discussion on overcoming associated challenges, and inspire innovative approaches to sharing their work effectively. Attendees will leave with a clearer vision for navigating the evolving landscape of mindfulness research publication in the era of AI integration.
Beyond ‘what works’: why systematisation matters and what more it can do for the criminal justice evidence base
(Taylor & Francis , 2026-01-09) Tompson, Lisa
That a convenience sample cannot safely be generalised from is a trite truism in research. Yet in the criminal justice field, unrepresentative samples of studies routinely inform policy, practice, and theory. Novel or familiar findings often carry disproportionate weight, and selective reading can generate unwarranted certainty about what we think we know. Systematic reviews offer a solution to this problem. By requiring transparent and reproducible methods, they constrain overinterpretation of partial evidence and can promote sound reasoning. Despite their centrality to evidence-based criminal justice, systematic reviews are often narrowly understood as tools for answering ‘what works’ questions. This paper argues that the same logic of systematisation can support a much broader range of knowledge needs, including theory development, mechanism and context synthesis, measurement refinement, and futures-oriented evidence mapping. Thus, systematic reviews are not simply a tool for judging intervention effectiveness, but a family of methods for building cumulative, policy-relevant knowledge.
Self-construals and environmental values in 55 cultures
(Elsevier, 2022-02) Duff, Hamish; Vignoles, Vivian L.; Becker, Maja; Milfont, Taciano L.
Environmentalism is influenced by views of the self. In past research, individuals who saw themselves as more interdependently connected to others expressed greater environmental concern than those who saw themselves as more independent from others. Yet, cross-cultural evidence is limited. In this pre-registered study, we tested how seven ways of being interdependent or independent correlated with environmental values among 7279 members of 55 cultural groups from 33 nations. Consistent with our predictions, environmental values were strongly associated with several forms of interdependent self-construal, supporting parallels between self–other and self–nature relations. Specifically, two interdependent forms of self-construal showed consistent cross-cultural correlations: those who saw themselves as more connected to others and those who emphasized commitment to others above self-interest were more likely to endorse the value of looking after the environment. Extending previous conceptions, one way of being independent correlated reliably with environmentalism: those who saw themselves as consistent across contexts were also more likely to endorse environmental values. Multilevel moderation analysis indicated that commitment to others had stronger correlations with environmental values in nations with greater environmental performance and national development. We conclude that improving social connectedness and cohesion, alongside the protection of natural ecosystems, may be imperative for tackling the global climate crisis.
A population-based study of traumatic brain injury incidence and mechanisms in New Zealand: 2021–2022 compared with 2010–2011
(Elsevier, 2026) Jones, Kelly; Theadom, Alice; Starkey, Nicola; Zeng, Irene; Ameratunga, Shanthi; Barker-Collo, Suzanne; Wilkinson-Meyers, Laura; Te Ao, Braden; Henry, Nathan; McClean, Luke A; Chua, Jennifer; Haumaha, Leah; Kahan, Michael; Christey, Grant; Hardaker, Natalie; Jones, Amy; Dowell, Anthony; Feigin, Valery; Barker-Collo, Suzanne; Wilkinson-Meyers, Laura; Berryman, Kay; Scott, Nina; Masters-Awatere, Bridgette
Background: Monitoring traumatic brain injury (TBI) incidence and epidemiological patterns is important for evidence-based strategic planning, policy, prevention, and resource allocation. We revisited population-based estimates and examined patterns of TBI incidence (all ages, severities) in 2021–2022 compared with 2010–2011 in New Zealand (NZ). Methods: Examining an urban (Hamilton) and rural (Waikato District) region in NZ (May 2021–April 2022, unintentionally following the start of the COVID-19 pandemic), we calculated crude annual age-, sex-, ethnic-, urban/rural area- and mechanism-specific TBI incidence per 100,000 person-years with 95% Confidence Intervals (CI). Poisson regression was used to derive adjusted Risk Ratios (aRRs) to compare age-standardised rates between sex, ethnicity, and area groups. Direct standardisation was used to age-standardise rates to the world population. We calculated Incidence Rate Ratios (IRRs) with 95% CI to compare 2021–2022 with 2010–2011 age-standardised rates. Findings: Total TBI incidence per 100,000 person-years was 852 cases (95% CI 816–890), including 791 cases (756–828) of mild TBI, and 61 cases (52–72) of moderate to severe TBI. TBI affected males more than females (IRR 1.31, 95% CI 1.29–1.33), and urban more than rural residents (IRR 1.57, 1.43–1.73). Most TBI (61%) occurred in people aged 15–64 years and were due to falls (48%). European and Asian peoples had lower risk of TBI than Māori (aRRs 0.68, 0.31 respectively). Compared to 2010–2011, total TBI incidence and rates among Māori were stable; TBI incidence was greater among females, urban residents, and adults aged ≥34 years; and TBI due to falls significantly increased (IRR 1.20, 95% CI 1.03–1.40). Interpretation: Noting increased risks for underestimation due to COVID-19, findings suggest overall TBI incidence rate in NZ was similar in 2021–2022 to 2010–2011, while highlighting changes in TBI distribution. Age-, sex-, area-, ethnic-, and mechanism-specific distributions should be considered when revisiting prevention strategies to reduce TBI incidence. Funding: Health Research Council of New Zealand of NZ.
Understanding poly-victimisation through an intersectional lens
(SAGE Publications, 2026-01-27) Tompson, Lisa; Jolliffe Simpson, Apriel; Wortley, Richard
Compared to the well-established phenomenon of repeat victimisation (experiencing the same crime type repeatedly), poly-victimisation (experiencing multiple crime types) is poorly understood. We argue that advancing understanding of poly-victimisation requires focusing on characteristics that transcend single crime events; the time-stable “flags” that explain why some people experience victimisation across contexts. Given the significant impact of poly-victimisation on wellbeing, this study aims to inform crime prevention policies by identifying personal characteristics associated with poly-victimisation risk within a 12-month period in Aotearoa New Zealand. We used binary logistic regression and Conjunctive Analysis of Case Configurations (CACC) to examine responses to the New Zealand Crime and Victims Survey. Poly-victimisation risk was rarely attributable to a single characteristic but was instead shaped by interactions between them. Consistent with prior studies, psychological distress frequently co-occurred with poly-victimisation, highlighting that victimisation often affects those least equipped to endure it. The case-oriented approach of CACC can provide critical insights into the complex risk dynamics associated with victimisation. Identifying and supporting poly-victims requires targeted interventions that recognise the cumulative impact of multiple vulnerabilities on victimisation risk.
The peopling and development of Aotearoa New Zealand: A demographic history, 1769-2020
(Portal Peopling, 2026) Pool, Ian; Sceats, Janet E.
This unpublished manuscript is the first demographic history of Aotearoa New Zealand, integrating 250 years of Māori and non-Māori data. It explores how development, in the broadest social, cultural and economic sense drove population changes, but was in turn driven by demographic factors. Based on extensively referenced research and analysis, the timeline starts with the earliest European settlement and finishes with the multicultural and aging society of the first decades of the twenty-first century. It encompasses momentous changes, including: successive waves of migration, European settler demographic dominance occurring rapidly through natural increase, Māori nineteenth century cultural devastation and population decline, and twentieth-century resurgence, the Māori rural/urban exodus beginning in the 1940s, and the post-war non-Māori baby boom and baby bust. At each stage, this book demonstrates how profoundly the story of Aotearoa New Zealand is also the demographic story of its peopling.
Qualitative methods to capture the nuance of realities: My journey to explore their stories, our stories and my own stories
(Asian Qualitative Inquiry Association, 2025) Lee, Jinah
This study reflects on my research journey with qualitative methodologies — specifically narrative inquiry, autoethnography, and duoethnography — as ways to capture the nuanced and complex realities embedded in diverse contexts. Through revisiting four distinct studies, I demonstrate how these approaches offer rich possibilities for novice and early-career researchers seeking to engage deeply with lived experience. My doctoral research employed narrative inquiry to foreground their stories — the lived experiences of participants shaped and expressed through personal narratives. Building upon this foundation, I turned to autoethnography to explore my stories in relation to theirs, acknowledging the entangled nature of researcher and participant narratives and the emergence of our stories. Most recently, duoethnography has enabled collaborative meaning-making, where your stories and my stories intersect, challenge, and evolve together. Across these methodological explorations, I highlight the importance of reflection, reflexivity, retrospection, and iteration as central practices within qualitative inquiry. These elements not only support the construction and co-construction of realities but also foster deeper understanding of complexity and context. By critically positioning ourselves in relation to the stories we study, co-create, and share, researchers can cultivate spaces for ethical engagement, transformative insight, and relational accountability.
Decolonising otherness and sense of belonging: Autoethnography of a Korean woman migrant in Aotearoa New Zealand during the pandemic (2020-2022)
(Asian Qualitative Inquiry Association, 2025) Lee, Jinah
This autoethnography examines my lived experiences as a Korean migrant in Aotearoa New Zealand during the 2020-2022 global pandemic, interwoven with narratives from Asian women migrants in my doctoral research. Through personal and collective storytelling, I explore the intricate interplay between belonging and otherness, a duality that resonates deeply across our shared experiences. Employing a qualitative methodological approach, this study critically engages with decolonising perspectives, neo-racism, and social identity theory to unpack the complexities of ethnic and racial exclusion, cultural hybridity, and the pervasive ‘us and them’ dichotomy amplified by colonial worldviews. The narrative reveals layers of otherness ― manifested in feelings of displacement, experiences of victimisation, and unintentional harm ― while highlighting the profound human need for belonging. The findings reveal nuanced lived realities often overlooked in broader societal discourses. This study contributes to understanding the dynamics of social identity, power relations, and belonging, offering critical insights into how Asian women migrants negotiate their place in a world shaped by ethical and racial divides. It calls for a re-examination of narratives that perpetuate exclusion, advocating for more inclusive frameworks that honour diverse experiences.
Settling in: Korean international students as English language learners in New Zealand
(Asian Qualitative Inquiry Association, 2024) Lee, Jinah
This small-scale study examines the initial settlement period of Korean international students in New Zealand. Using Bour-dieu’s (2018) theory of social and cultural capital, the ethnographic research explores the settlement experiences of these students. The findings reveal that participants face significant challenges in adapting to new social and cultural practices, along with a notable lack of social support during this transition. Most prominently, they identify English language profi-ciency as the primary barrier to successful settlement. As both an insider and outsider, the researcher reflects on the par-ticipants' stories and analyzes them through the lens of her own experiences. The findings provide valuable insights for supporting the return of international students to countries such as New Zealand and the Republic of Korea in the post-pandemic era, with a particular focus on improving support services and enhancing sustainability.
Lost in translation or lack of nuance? Perception of (near-)synonymy of common te reo Māori loanwords in New Zealand English
(Australian Linguistic Society, 2024) Pohl, Alexander; Calude, Andreea S.; Zenner, Eline; Rosseel, Laura; Whaanga, Hēmi
Ongoing contact between languages and their speakers inevitably leads to a flow of words being borrowed from one language into another. Research in the field of language contact has established and documented the kinds of borrowed words that stick in their recipient language (Haspelmath 2009; Winford 2010). However, one question that has received comparatively less attention is how a newly adopted loanword relates to the structure of the existing lexicon it enters. In recent years, language contact research has thus seen a paradigm shift towards an onomasiological perspective (see Anderson et al. 2017; Crombez et al. 2022; Zenner et al. 2023). Within this approach, most studies looking at lexical variation between loanwords and their (near-)synonyms employ corpus linguistics methods (e.g. Onysko & Winter-Froemel 2011; Soares da Silva 2013). However, there is variation in how these corpus studies have investigated loanword meanings, and, to our knowledge, there has been almost no experimental research focussed specifically on the relationship between loanwords and their (near-)synonyms to date. This project presents a large-scale experimental approach from a case-study examining Māori loanwords borrowed into New Zealand English (NZE). NZE presents an unusual language contact situation because it involves a dominant language (NZE) receiving an exceptionally high amount of lexical material (words and phrases) from an Indigenous language: Māori. Further adding to the uniqueness of this contact situation is the fact that only a fraction of the population (<10%) speaks Māori fluently (Statistics New Zealand 2019). Nonetheless, Māori loanwords are ubiquitous, salient, and probably still increasing within the NZE lexicon (Macalister 2007; Trye et al. 2019). One important dimension of this set of borrowings are their semantic characteristics, which straddle three main classes of words: flora and fauna (mānuka ‘tea tree’), material culture (maunga ‘mountain’) and social culture (mana ‘power’). Here, we report on a Qualtrics experiment devised to probe the perceived relationship between 60 Māori loanwords and their NZE equivalents, as ascertained from published sources. The synonymy judgements were elicited for pairs (e.g. whānau – family) using an analogue slider (ranging from 0 = non-synonymous to 100 = fully synonymous). Data was collected using a three-tiered questionnaire: 1) assessing synonymy of loanwords; 2) eliciting strategies for semantic assessments; and 3) collating background information about participants. Following cleaning and exclusions, the dataset showed a skew towards female participants, and for this reason, we focus our statistical analysis on the core sample containing (n = 170) young women (18-24 years). The results of the synonymy judgements analysis consist of qualitative inspections of box plots in relation to the semantic characteristics of Māori words in question, as well as sociodemographic variables of interest, specifically: years lived in Aotearoa NZ, and a composite score capturing exposure to and attitude towards Māori (TRMO). Preliminary findings suggest that many people think Māori loanwords are (highly) synonymous with NZE lexical alternatives. Our regression analyses exhibit evidence that years lived in Aotearoa NZ (p = 0.0054) and TRMO (p = 8.26e-10) can predict knowledge of Māori words. No statistically significant evidence was found for any predictors regarding the scores of the synonymy judgements; instead, we found that the random effects account for most of the variation. This is indicative of idiosyncratic loanword behaviour, in line with situations where variation is in-flux. These findings will be complemented by qualitative analyses of comments provided by participants in the open answer section (2). The talk will conclude with a summary of contributions to the general understanding of loanword meanings and contact-induced lexical change.
Mainstreaming managed retreat in Aotearoa New Zealand [Policy Brief]
(Resilience to Nature's Challenges, 2023-04) Hanna, Christina Jane; White, Iain; Cretney, Raven
Retreat in Aotearoa has evolved from early indigenous practices which saw relocation from harm as a viable option, to the onset of colonisation and more protection-based approaches, to more passive policy that acknowledged the option of retreat but provided little guidance or implementation support, to today, when retreat is becoming a strategic part of our national risk management framework.
Final report: Reducing burglary through Secured by Design: a meta-analysis
(Te Puna Haumaru | New Zealand Institute for Security and Crime Science, Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato | The University of Waikato, 2024-09) Armitage, Rachel; Sidebottom, Aiden; Tompson, Lisa
Secured by Design (SBD) is a UK-based crime prevention initiative that sets security standards for the built environment. Buildings that meet prescribed security standards are awarded SBD status and, all things being equal, are assumed to be at lower risk of crime. SBD draws heavily on the principles of situational crime prevention and crime prevention through environmental design. This study reviewed the evidence on whether properties that meet SBD standards experience less crime than properties that do not. Following a comprehensive search of the literature, nine UK studies were included in our review. Eligibility was limited to studies that (1) measured levels of crime in SBD developments compared to matched non-SBD developments or (2) reported changes in crime before and after SBD accreditation in a treatment and control group. This sample included studies of new dwellings built to SBD standards (n = 7) and existing dwellings refurbished to SBD standards (n = 2). Our analysis found that eight of the nine included studies reported that SBD accreditation was associated with lower levels of burglary. In only three of these studies was the observed effect statistically significant, however. Synthesising data across all nine studies, our results indicate that overall, burglary in SBD properties was 53% lower than in non-SBD properties. The impact on burglary was greater still when focussing only on new properties built to SBD standards. For this sample of studies, we found a 65% relative reduction in burglary compared to matched non-SBD properties. No statistically significant effect was observed for other forms of crime and disorder. Insufficient data meant that we could not measure the impact of SBD specifically in refurbished properties nor could we test for crime displacement or diffusion of crime control benefits. Importantly, there was no evidence of SBD leading to an increase in crime and disorder. The findings from this review support the general hypothesis that more secure households experience less burglary. They also lend further support for the basic idea that crime can be reduced by removing opportunities to commit it. From a policy perspective, our results re-emphasise the importance of engaging with manufacturers and design professionals to ensure that crime prevention is considered at the design and planning stage of urban developments. More specifically, our findings indicate that upgrading and/or maintaining effective SBD standards is a sensible strategy to reduce burglary. Simply put, properties which met SBD standards were significantly less likely to be burgled. Although the results of this study are generally positive, there are some notes of caution. Only a small number of studies met the inclusion criteria for this review (n = 9). This was most pronounced for studies of existing properties refurbished to SBD standards (n = 2). Of those studies that were included in the review, weaknesses were identified concerning study design and limited data were provided on factors such as the quality of SBD measures and crime displacement. Moreover, three of nine included studies are now over twenty years old and relate to SBD standards that have been superseded. Relatedly, the quality of security in non-SBD properties has, in general, improved over time, influenced by a combination of technological developments, policy changes and, potentially, the growth and influence of SBD itself. One consequence of these general improvements is that the difference in security between SBD and non-SBD developments may, on average, be less pronounced today than it was thirty years ago. This raises concerns about the equivalence of SBD vs non-SBD evaluation sites; some properties might meet SBD standards despite not being SBD accredited, thereby muddying SBD vs non-SBD comparisons. Newer high quality evaluation studies are therefore needed to determine whether the positive effects reported here hold in contemporary urban environments, with greater attention paid to the quality of household security being compared across SBD and non-SBD developments. Furthermore, to advance the evidence base for SBD, we recommend that future evaluation studies include a wider range of outcome measures (including displacement) and put data collection measures in place better to understand what specific aspects of SBD affect crime, through what mechanisms and under what conditions.

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