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This collection houses research from Te Kura Toi School of Arts, Te Kura Whatu Oho Mauri School of Psychology, and Te Kura Aronui School of Social Sciences at the University of Waikato.
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Publication Ki te kapu o taku ringa - In the palm of my hand(Book, Rodrigo Hill and the authors, 2024) Hill, Rodrigo; Roa, TomThis publication accompanies the launching of our exhibition 'Ki te Kapu o Taku Ringa - In the Palm of My Hand' at the Ōtorohanga Museum in June 2024. The title is taken from a line of King Tāwhiao's song-poem 'Maioha mō Waikato'. Ejected from their homelands he and his Waikato brethren took refuge with their Maniapoto relations in Te Nehenehenui; parts of which are mentioned in the song-poem. Teh 'maioha' was composed expressing King Tāwhiao's love for his homelands, and his solastagic holding fast to those lands '...in the palm of his hand.'Publication Happiness(Oral Presentation, 2024-03-27) Weijers, Dan M.In this presentation, Dan introduces the concepts around happiness and resilience and then discusses some of the scientifically supported ways to find a bit more joy, contentment, and peace of mind in this hectic world.Publication Conventionalism in Izydora Dąmbska (1904-1983)(Internet Publication, University of Paderborn Press, 2024) Ulatowski, Joseph W.An overview of Izydora Dąmbska's views on conventionalism.Publication The role of intuition in social work practice: Differing understandings and attitudes(Journal Article, Taylor and Francis Ltd, 2024-06-12) Curtis, CateThere has been a long debate about the use of intuition in helping professions, including social work. Often viewed negatively in professional contexts, intuition is nonetheless used as a form of risk assessment. The current research examined methods of identifying child sexual abuse. A mixed methods approach was taken, with 98 participants completing an online questionnaire and 24 taking part in in-depth interviews. The participants demonstrated varied perceptions of intuition and its usefulness. Although some participants were strongly critical of its use, for others, intuition or ‘gut feelings’ were preferred to formal assessment tools. However, what was discussed as intuition, rather than a form of ‘sixth sense’, was often based on tacit knowledge; for example, abused young people’s observable behaviours combined with known risk factors such as certain family characteristics. Therefore, concerns about the use of intuition may be based on incorrect assumptions.Publication Articulate the Kiwi way: perception insights from a language game corpus(Journal Article, New Zealand Linguistics Society, 2024-09-01) Calude, Andreea S.; Burnette, JessieThis short communication reports on folk perceptions of New Zealand English lexical variation, specifically regarding which Māori loanwords are widely known by New Zealanders. We inspect the words used in a popular board game which has recently produced a New Zealand Edition – Articulate – and comb through these for all loanword uses, drawing comparisons with linguistics research and two popular websites containing lists of “Māori words every New Zealander should know” (Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2022). We find remarkable overlap between the loanwords used in the board game and the former, but not the latter. The most frequent loanwords included are social culture loanwords, in line with research in other genres. The lack of consistency in spelling and macron usage leads us to believe that board games such as Articulate constitute rich sources for folk perceptions of language varieties, showing that even small-scale corpora can provide inroads into thorny questions regarding perceptions of contact-induced lexical variation.Publication Publish or perish: Death in the publication performance(Journal Article, Auckland University of Technology (AUT) Library, 2023-03-01) Piercy, Gemma LouiseThe purpose of this paper is to share a poem I wrote as I seek to publish findings from my PhD. The poem, which can be considered as a form of evocative autoethnography, expresses trauma incurred during childhood triggered by feedback accompanying a desk reject. The poem echoes internalised judgement but also seeks to provide hope that achievement is possible even in the face of what feels insurmountable. The backdrop of the poem is the neo-liberal university, the emotive and perilous demand to publish or perish, as well as patriarchal mansplaining.Publication Reframing the art of music video: “mismatched eyeballs” and reanimated collaborators(Conference Contribution, 2023-10-12) Perrott, LisaJust as music videos have been studied through many frames, so too, has David Bowie. When undertaking research for my book David Bowie and the Art of Music Video, a reframing process was necessary. This entailed starting from the premise that music videos are functionally diverse, complex audiovisual configurations that go well beyond serving as a promotional tool for a musician or as a stepping stone to auteurism for a director. This act of ‘reframing’ also involved examining Bowie’s creative process through a fresh lens. Through a combination of contextual research, interview materials, audience research, and multimodal analysis of Bowie’s videos, I demonstrate that Bowie played an important part in helping develop music video as a collaborative artform with diverse functions, affects, and contributions to social, cultural, and political understandings. By reframing the art of music video, this book firmly places the spotlight onto the relations between collaborative process and audiovisual assemblage, demonstrating that music video is a flexible form for transmedia storytelling, intertextuality, and the remediation of numerous artforms – all of which supports my argument that music video is a form worthy of deep analysis. By reflecting on my response to unique challenges (such as limited opportunities to interview music video directors), this presentation will discuss my research process as an example of reframing the art (and research) of music video.Publication Na yaqona kei na i tikotiko ni veivakarautaki vakavuli: Na veisataki ni i tuvatuva vakalawa kei na veiqaravi raraba (Yaqona [kava] and the school campus: Regulation versus facilitation [Fijian])(Journal Article, University of Waikato, 2023) Aporosa, S. 'Apo'; Vunibola, SNa yaqona e gacagaca ni veiqaravi se i tovo vakavanua vakaitaukei ka ra dau vakayagataka talega ena veibogi eso vei ira na noda, ia oqo e sega ni vakatokai me wai ni gunu vakavavalagi. E dina ga ni ra sega ni dau gunuva na yaqona na gonevuli e Viti, e dau taurivaki na kena vulici e valenivuli na veiqaraqarivi vakavanua ka vakayagataki kina na yaqona. E ra dau vakaitavi talega na gonevuli e na veiqaraqaravi vakavanua vei ira na vulagi e na so na soqo e koronivuli. Ni cabe na yabaki 2000 a navuca na tabacakacaka ni vuli e Viti me sa vakatabui na kena gunuvi na yaqona e na loma ni bai ni koronivuli, ka nanumi ni vakaleqa na nodra veiqaravi na qasenivuli. E na vakadidike oqo e a taurivaki na kena dikevi ka vakacakulei na kena gunuvi na yaqona. E mani raici ni rawa ni vakaluluqataka na kena monataki na cakacaka ni veiqaravi vakaqasenivuli ka vakabibi ke ra a gunu yaqona mai e na bogi. E dina ni sa dodonu dina me vakatabui na gunuvi ni yaqona e na kena dikevi vakavakasama, ia e tukuna na dau ni vakadidike oqo ni vakatatabu oqo e dodonu me voci tale mada vakavudi. Na yaqona e gacagaca ni nodra vakasoqonivata na itaukei ni veikoronivuli, e dau vakayacori kina na veiqaravi vakavanua e koronivuli, e dua na ka e tukunikataki kina na i tovo vakavanua. Na veitiki ni veiqaravi kece oqo e dau lai soqonivata ka solevaka me ra vukea yani na nodra tadolova na vuli vinaka na luve i Vitia. (Yaqona (kava) is a culturally significant, non-alcoholic drink consumed nightly by many Fijians. Although yaqona is not consumed by primary or secondary school students, cultural protocols related to yaqona preparation and presentation are often taught in their schools, with students then presenting this indigenous drink to acknowledge visitors to the school, open events and support fundraisers. In the early 2000s, some within the Fiji Ministry of Education began questioning whether yaqona use by teachers was negatively impacting their teaching ability, suggesting it should be banned from the school campus. In this study, Fijian teachers were cognitively tested and interviewed following an evening of yaqona consumption with the results suggesting this indigenous substance can disrupt cognition and in turn negatively impact teaching quality the morning after consumption. Although development theory prescribes prohibition and situational bans in cases where indigenous substances negatively impact productivity, the author argues that prohibiting yaqona in Fijian schools would be short-sighted as the findings show that this traditional substance is critical to the facilitation of school function, identity formation and academic achievement, all elements necessary to development.)Publication Yaqona: Sotavi na cala ni nanuma kei na itukutuku buli semati ki na ivakatakilakila matataka na keda ikilai [De-mythologizing and re-branding of kava as the new ‘world drug’ of choice [Fijian])(Journal Article, University of Waikato, 2023) Aporosa, S. 'Apo'; Gaunavou (Snr), UNa cava o vakatoka me vola itukutuku se ena dua tale na yaca bibi cake, me vakekeli, ka tokoni ena itukutuku veivakacalai tokaruataki vakawasoma ka vakavuna me ciqomi ia e tukunikataki kina na veika sega ni dina? Qo na kisi e yaco ena itei na yaqona ka vakatokai vakasainisi na Piper methysticum se ena dua tale na yaca ka vakayacana e dua e vulica na veika bula se naturalist ka a tomani kavetani James Cook ena nona ilakolako mai na Pasivika ena 2,500 na yabaki sa oti me ‘intoxicating pepper’ Na yaca oya e vakaibalebaletaka ni rawa tale ga ni vakavuna na mateni na yaqona me vaka ga na yaqona ni Valagi, e dua vei ira na ‘itukutuku buli’ tarai cake tiko me baleta na yaqona ena veiyabaki sa oti, ka keirau vakabauta o Dr ‘Apo’ Aporosa mai na Yunivesiti ni Waikato e Niusiladi kei Usaia Gaunavou (Snr.) mai na Yunivesiti ni Viti ka keirau vakabauta ni sa kena gauna donu me vakalewai tale na noda icon of Pacific identity se ivakatakilakila matataka na keda ikilai vakaPasivika ka vakadodonutaka na ivakadewa cala. (What do you call journalism, or more importantly research, that is supported by repetitive misinformation, resulting in an accepted but incorrect, narrative? This is the case with the kava plant, named Piper methysticum or ‘intoxicating pepper’ by a naturalist who accompanied Captain James Cook on his voyage to the Pacific some 250 years ago. That name, which inferred that kava causes intoxication when consumed, is one of several ‘myths’ that have developed around kava over the years, and Dr ‘Apo’ Aporosa from New Zealand’s University of Waikato and Usaia Gaunavou (Snr) from the Universiity of Fiji believe it’s time to re-evaluate this icon of Pacific identity and correct these misunderstandings.)Publication Na gunu yaqona ena kena ivalavala vei keda na itaukei, na vakasama vata kei na vakatulewa e sala muria mai; vata kei na ituvaki vinaka ni vakasama nei koya na dau ni vakau motoka. Traditional kava-drinking, cognition and driver fitness [Fijian](Journal Article, 2023) Aporosa, S. 'Apo'; Gaunavou Jr, UE robota vakarabailevu na Pasivika na tubu ni itei ni yaqona, se ‘na nodra itei na Kalou Vu’. E vakayagataki me wainimate vakaViti, e tuki tale ga na wakana ka lose ena waidroka ka tauvuloni me gunuvi ka igunugunu veivakacegui. E tiko na ikilai vakavanua ni yaqona, ia baleta ni sa gunuvi vakasivia ena loma ni vica na auwa, sa vure cake mai na kauwai ena vuku ni kena revurevu ki na nodra tataqomaki na draiva. A sa vulica o Dr ‘Apo’ Aporosa, e dua na Research Fellow ena univesiti ni Waikato e Niusiladi na revurevu ni kena vakayagataki vakavanua na yaqona ki na ituvaki vinaka ni vakasama kei na veika e vakavurea ena ituvaki vinaka ni draiva. E vulica o Dr ‘Apo’ Aporosa na revurevu ni vakayagataki vakavanua ni yaqona ki na ituvaki vinaka ni vakasama kei na veika e vakavurea ena ituvaki vinaka ni draiva. (Kava, or ‘the plant of the gods’, grows widely across tropical Moananuiākea (the Pacific). Used in traditional medicine, its roots are also pounded and strained through water to make a drink with relaxant effects. Kava has deep cultural significance, but because it is drunk in large quantities over several hours, concerns have been raised about its effects on driver safety. Dr ‘Apo’ Aporosa, a Research Fellow at the University of Waikato in New Zealand, has studied the impact of traditional kava use on cognition and its implications for driver fitness. The findings of that research are presented here in the Fijian language.)Publication Olsemwanem kastom blong tring kava i save afektem tingting blong man mo wei we man i draev (Traditional kava-drinking, cognition and driver fitness)(Journal Article, 2023) Aporosa, S. 'Apo'; Wells, M-CKava, we oli singautem tu se ‘plant blong ol god’, hemi gro plante long ol tropikol aelan blong Pacific. Ol man oli yusum kava olsem lokol meresin. Mo tu, oli kranem rus blong hem, afta strenem long wota blong oli save tring blong mekem oli fil rilaks. Long saed blong kastom, kava i kat impotent mining, be naoia we man i stap tring tumas kava, i kat wari i kamaot from ifekt blong hem long saed blong seifti taem man i draev. Dokta ‘Apo’ Aporosa, we hemi stap karem aut risej long Waikato University long Aotearoa New Zealand, hemi bin stadi wei we kava i afektem tingting blong man taem man i draev. (Kava, or ‘the plant of the gods’, grows widely across tropical Moananuiākea (the Pacific). Used in traditional medicine, its roots are also pounded and strained through water to make a drink with relaxant effects. Kava has deep cultural significance, but because it is drunk in large quantities over several hours, concerns have been raised about its effects on driver safety. Dr ‘Apo’ Aporosa, a Research Fellow at the University of Waikato in New Zealand, has studied the impact of traditional kava use on cognition and its implications for driver fitness. The findings of that research are presented here in Bislama/Pidgeon language.)Publication Taumafaina o le ‘ava Samoa, a’afiaga o le mafaufau, ma le ave taavale (Traditional kava-drinking, cognition and driver fitness [Samoan])(Journal Article, University of Waikato, 2023) Aporosa, S. 'Apo'; Fuimaono, LGM‘Ava, po'o se 'La’au mai le Atua o le Lagi', ua fa’aigoaina ai e nisi. Ua fa’atupulaia lona ola lauusiusi i so’o se vaega o le Pasefika (Moananuiakea). Ua fa’aaogaina foi mo vaila’au ma togafitiga fa’afoma’i fa’ale-aganu’u, ma o ona a'a foi ua fa’aaoga e tu'itu'i fa’amalu, ona palu fa’atasi lea i se suavai ma tatau fa’amama, ona inu lea e malolo i ai pe fa’amalolo ai foi le tino. O le ava e maoa'e tele lona taua ma lona fa’aaogaina i le aganu’u, ae talu ai ona ua inuina e tagata se suavai ava tele mo se taimi umi foi, ua fa’aleoina ai ni lagona popole ma atugaluga o le toatele ona o ni a'afiaga e ono alia'e ma tutupu mai ai, e a'afia ai le saogalemu o le aveina o se ta’avale. O le ali’i su'es'ue mai le Iunivesite o Waikato i Niu Sila o Dr Apo Aporosa, ua ia su'esu'eina ni a'afiaga po'o ni fa’afitauli e ono alia'e mai, pe afai o le a e aveina se ta’avale ae sa e taumafa/inu ava. E aofia ai aafiaga i le mafaufau lelei ma le ave taavale saogalemū. O lo’o su'esu'eina e le ali’i su'esu'e ia Dr Apo Aporosa ni a'afiaga ma se malamalama’aga fa'ale-mafaufau, po'o ni fa’alavelave e ono tutupu foi, pe afai e te aveina se ta’avale, ae sa e taumafa pe inuina foi se ava. (Kava, or ‘the plant of the gods’, grows widely across tropical Moananuiākea (the Pacific). Used in traditional medicine, its roots are also pounded and strained through water to make a drink with relaxant effects. Kava has deep cultural significance, but because it is drunk in large quantities over several hours, concerns have been raised about its effects on driver safety. Dr ‘Apo’ Aporosa, a Research Fellow at the University of Waikato in New Zealand, has studied the impact of traditional kava use on cognition and its implications for driver fitness. The findings of that research are presented here in the Samoan language.)Publication Inu kava anga-mahení, ʻatamaí mo ʻene fakakaukaú mo e tuʻunga taau ke fakaʻuli saliote mīsiní (Traditional kava-drinking, cognition and driver fitness [Tongan])(Journal Article, University of Waikato, 2023) Aporosa, S. 'Apo'; Sisitoutaí, SKava, ʻiloa ko e ngoue ʻa e ngāhi ʻotuá, kuo mafola he ngāhi motu fakatalopiki ʻi he Pasifikí. Kuo ngaue ʻaki ʻi he ngāhi faitoʻo tuʻufonuá, ʻaia ʻoku tuki hono aká ʻo palu3 mo fakatatau ko e vai fakanonga. Ko hono tala he anga fakafonuá ko e meʻa mahuʻinga lahi, ka koeʻuhí ko hono maʻu lahi mo tō-tuʻa ʻo lau houá, ʻoku tupu ai e hohaʻa heʻene uesia tamaki e tuʻunga malu ʻo e fakaʻuli saliote mīsiní. Ko Dr Apo Aporosa, ko e tangata fakatotolo fakaako ʻi he ʻUnivēsiti ʻo Waikató (Niu Sila), ʻaia naʻa ne fekumi ai ki he uesia ʻe he inu kava anga-mahení e fakahoko fatongia ʻa e ʻatamaí mo ʻene ueʻi e tuʻunga malu ʻo e fakaʻuli saliote misiní. Ko e fekumi ne fai ʻe Dr Apo Aporosa ki he uesia ʻe he inu kava anga-mahení e fai fatongia ʻa e ʻatamaí mo ʻene ueʻi e tuʻunga malu ʻo e fakaʻuli saliote mīsiní. (Kava, or ‘the plant of the gods’, grows widely across tropical Moananuiākea (the Pacific). Used in traditional medicine, its roots are also pounded and strained through water to make a drink with relaxant effects. Kava has deep cultural significance, but because it is drunk in large quantities over several hours, concerns have been raised about its effects on driver safety. Dr ‘Apo’ Aporosa, a Research Fellow at the University of Waikato in New Zealand, has studied the impact of traditional kava use on cognition and its implications for driver fitness. The findings of that research are presented here in the Tongan language.)Publication Self-decolonisation in Aotearoa: Pushing through programmatic Pākehā paralysis(Chapter in Book, Cardiff University Press, 2024) Weijers, Dan M.Te reo, tīkanga, mātauranga, te Ao, and kaupapa Māori are finally seeing a resurgence in Aotearoa. This revitalisation is occurring in the tertiary education sector, but staff and skill deficits are holding back many academic disciplines. This chapter documents the challenges facing a traditionally colonial tertiary programme—philosophy— attempting to de-colonise itself. The overlapping nature of the challenges can make decolonising appear to be so difficult that some programmes may feel paralysed. This chapter argues that the importance of decolonisation requires that programmes push through any paralysis they may be experiencing by prioritising decolonisation above other goals.Publication Validation of the comprehensive inventory of mindfulness experiences (CHIME) in English using Rasch methodology(Journal Article, Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2023-04-13) Wilkinson, Samuel; Ribeiro, Leticia; Krägeloh, Christian U.; Bergomi, Claudia; Parsons, Marie; Siegling, Alex; Tschacher, Wolfgang; Kupper, Zeno; Medvedev, Oleg N.Although mindfulness has been studied for multiple decades, psychometric research has yet to agree upon the optimal way to measure the mindfulness construct. Prior research has identified eight distinct aspects of mindfulness that were not adequately captured by any of the available measures. Hence, the Comprehensive Inventory of Mindfulness Experiences (CHIME) was developed. The CHIME contains 37 items and was originally developed in the German language. The CHIME has demonstrated excellent psychometric properties in both German and Dutch, but so far, no English version has been validated. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the psychometric characteristics of the translated English-language CHIME scale using Rasch methodology. Method: The current study utilized Partial Credit Rasch analysis to evaluate the psychometric characteristics of the English CHIME. The sample included responses from 620 participants from the general population residing in the USA. The validity of the English CHIME was examined by correlating its scores with various measures of mindfulness and psychological functioning. Results: Initial Rasch analysis of the English CHIME showed poor model fit, local dependency, and evidence against the assumption of unidimensionality. Several minor modifications, that involved creating super-items, were required to fit the Rasch model χ2(45)=31.99, p=0.93). This model displayed evidence of unidimensionality, invariance across personal factors, and a high reliability (PSI=0.92). Ordinal-interval transformation tables were produced, which increase the English CHIME’s precision of measurement. The English CHIME’s external validity was established by moderate–high correlations with other measures of mindfulness and various measures of psychological functioning. Conclusions: The results of this study provide evidence for the validity of the English CHIME scale, which can be used to assess the overarching construct of mindfulnes.Publication ‘Immune from the germ-laden things’: Immunity and Irish newspaper advertising, 1890–1940(Journal Article, Oxford University Press (OUP), 2024) Long, MaebhFrom 1890, as advertising in Irish newspapers grew in quantity and sophistication, a discourse of immunity began to circulate. Advertisers drew on advancements in bacteriology and immunology to present their goods as defensive strategies against a range of threats, from major infectious diseases to everyday coughs and colds. Consumers were urged to supplement their bodies’ vulnerabilities by purchasing pills and tonics, with medical products joined by immunity-assuring underwear, coats, cosmetics and cars. From a dataset of every immunity-focused advertisement in the Irish Newspaper Archives and The Irish Times archives between 1890 and 1940, I unpack the ways immunity was presented to the Irish public outside of medical institutions. I show how discourses of immunity intersected with influenza outbreaks, consider the implication of the non-national origins of many advertisements, and trace their rhetoric of protection and resistance across a range of product types.Publication Mobile technologies in schools: The student voice(Journal Article, University of Waikato, 2017) Hodge, Emma-Leigh; Robertson, Neville; Sargisson, Rebecca J.Intermediate and high school students spend a large amount of time using mobile devices (Lauricella, Cingel, Blackwell, Wartella, & Conway, 2014), and such devices are increasingly being integrated into our school system. We conducted a series of student-led focus groups, with this early adolescent cohort, in order to better understand their experiences of the recent technological shift. Four main ideas emerged from a thematic analysis of three focus group discussions: restrictions, student-led technology use, bypassing the restrictions, and connectivity as a need. Direct quotes from students and our analysis of these themes suggest that young people should be included, to a much greater extent, in discussions about the evolution of teaching practices in today’s digital age. Clear benefits and risks linked to greater use of mobile technologies were evident in our discussions, the implications of which are discussed along with limitations of the current study and proposed future research.Publication Narcissists don’t care about approval: The role of narcissism and status motives in explaining the relationship between self-objectification and approval motivation(Journal Article, Springer, 2024-07-02) Chen, Shilei; van Tilberg, Wijnand AP; Mahadevan, Nikhila; Leman, Patrick J.Prior research has established that women who self-objectify seek approval from others more strongly than women who self-objectify less. Yet the boundary conditions of this link remain largely unexamined. Building on hierometer theory, which postulates that narcissism tracks social status and motivates status-optimizing behaviour, we tested whether the desire for social status (e.g., among narcissists) severed the association between self-objectification and approval seeking. Two cross-sectional studies (NS1 = 200; NS2 = 201) using moderated mediation models found support for this proposition. The moderated mediation model shows that the link between self-objectification and approval seeking was attenuated among narcissists, as narcissists seek higher social status, instead of favour and approval from others. Together, the studies suggest that self-objectification no longer predicts approval seeking among individuals who prioritise status over inclusion. The findings help further connect the self-objectification literature to research on social status and self-regard. Practical implications and extensions are discussed.Publication Indian women's experiences of domestic violence in the context of migration to Aotearoa New Zealand: The role of women's in-laws(Journal Article, New Zealand Psychological Society, 2020-04) Somasekhar, Sripriya; Robertson, Neville R.; Thakker, JoIndian migrant women may experience violence and abuse not only from their partner but also from members of his family, including the mother-in-law. Such violence and abuse need to be understood within a cultural context in which arranged marriage and the provision of dowry are still normative. These arrangements give in-laws considerable leverage over married women and their natal family. We show how these dynamics can play out in the context of migration making women vulnerable to exploitation, close surveillance, control, isolation and abuse. It is important that service providers in the host country become educated about such dynamics.Publication Policy options for addressing immigrant student achievement gaps.(Journal Article, International Organization for Migration and Eurasylum Ltd, 2019) Volante, Louis; Klinger, Don; Siegel, Melissa; Yahia, LeenaThe Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has quickly become the most prominent achievement measure used by policymakers around the world to judge the quality and equity of their education system. In terms of equity, PISA triennial survey results consistently show a pronounced achievement gap between first- and second-generation immigrants and their non-immigrant counterparts in the areas of reading, mathematics and science literacy. In some cases, immigrant students are more than two grade levels behind their non-immigrant peers – a result that impedes their ability to pursue higher education and ultimately their prospects for economic advancement. However, it is important to note that these performance disadvantages vary significantly across international jurisdictions, underscoring the importance of cultural context, education policies and support and the nature of school systems.