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Item Application of small and large-sided games to youth rugby union: A match demands approach(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Wintershoven, KoenRugby union (RU) is a highly demanding and a global contact sport that combines physical, technical, and tactical characteristics. This team sport is practiced by players of all ages and backgrounds on various levels of play. To meet the demands of rugby competition, a multifactorial approach to training has been applied in practice. One training method that has risen to prominence for its reported benefits of contextualising and concurrently training all aspects of high-intensity intermittent field-based sports such as RU, is small-sided games (SSG). Most research on these training forms has been conducted on soccer players and tends to confirm its benefits. Emerging evidence in the rugby codes is heavily focussed on rugby league senior players, often on the elite level. Rugby union has shown scarce evidence for SSG training in senior players, but the knowledge regarding youth players is lagging. The aim of this thesis was therefore to investigate the application of SSG to RU, clarify their characteristics in youth players, and evaluate their suitability in function of developing and preparing players for competition. The initial literature review in Chapter 2 outlines that the physical, physiological, and kinematic demands of rugby competition are high, and vary according to the cohorts investigated, such as for playing level and position. In addition, emerging evidence showed that the match demands of youth differ between age groups, and from those in senior players. This preliminary investigation showed scant evidence of SSG efficacy and utility for improving physical performance but the research regarding the effects of SSG design was scarce and demonstrated incoherent methodology. The systematic review of the body of literature in Chapter 4 used PRISMA methodology to establish that five out of seven initial studies examining the effects of SSG were at critical risk of bias, and a further two were at moderate risk. Despite moderate to good methodological quality (52-98%), these findings imply two studies provide sound evidence for a non-randomized study but cannot be considered comparable to a well-performed randomized trial, and five studies are objectively too problematic to provide any useful evidence and should not be included in any future synthesis of the literature. Within these studies, the lack of a focussed line of investigation was identified as a key weakness. Initial results of the review indicated that various SSG designs influence the outcomes differently for different cohorts, and that fewer players and larger pitches could increase demands. However, no evidence was available for the design of SSG in youth RU players. Recent evolutions in the relevant literature revealed that seven additional studies have expanded the knowledge but show a similar disparity in methods, hampering the ability to extrapolate clear and applicable conclusions for SSG design, especially in youth players. In Chapter 5 and Chapter 6, a worldwide e-survey study (n=115) discussed the application of SSG in RU practice. These results confirmed the notion that SSG are widely used in practice, with 85% of practitioners, applying SSG regularly across all levels of play and in all age categories. Technical skill (26%), fun (25%), physical conditioning (18%), and tactical training (17%) were established as the main targeted objectives. The specific design of SSG was related to practitioners’ characteristics such as playing level, coaching experience, practitioner role, target age group, player sex, and geographical location. Most practitioners used two or three bouts of three to seven-a-side SSG, with a 1:1 to 5:1 work-rest ratio, for short durations (2-10 minutes). Tackle (37%), touch (36%), and wrapping (28%) were commonly implemented rules. However, school and lower-level coaches used longer bouts and tackle rules on less variable pitch sizes, for fun and technical skill, more often than higher-level coaches, who preferred shorter-duration bouts with touch rules and more extreme pitch sizes, primarily for physical conditioning. Overall, 3v3, 5v5, and 7v7 were determined to be the most popular top-three SSG formats. We established that SSG design should be evidence-based and reflect the needs and challenges of the specific performance context. In Chapter 7, a cross-sectional experimental study was conducted on NZ secondary school-age RU players (n= 158; age 14.8 ± 1.4; height 174.5 ± 7.5 cm; mass 77.2 ± 17.1 kg). Four age groups (U14, U15, U16, U18) randomly played 3v3, 5v5, or 7v7 on a small (S= 25x35 m), medium (M= 35x50 m), or large (L=50x70 m) pitch, for three bouts of four minutes with three minutes of active recovery. Kinematic, physiological, and physical data were captured using microsensor devices, alongside ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and injury incidence. Multiple multivariate and univariate analyses found that player number and pitch size are the main elemental SSG design factors driving performance outcomes, followed by player age category and bout sequencing. The results showed that the isolated effect of increasing player numbers decreased kinematic and physiological demands, while an increase in pitch size mainly increased kinematic but not physiological demands. However, design factors mutually affected each other’s influence and select performance measures, such as sprint frequency, showed greater resistance to changes in format. Moreover, the innovative approach of the study in Chapter 7 integrated the SSG design constraints and demonstrated that maximising relative playing area (i.e., 3v3-L) maximises most kinematic, physiological, and physical performance measures. These findings further suggested that various SSG formats between ~350 and 583 m2·player-1, and for some measures as little as 175 m2·player-1, can produce running demands of approximately 94 m∙min-1 of relative distance (RD) and 145 m of high-intensity running distance (HIRD). Intensity measures across all youth showed an RPE of 15 and an average heart rate (HRAVG) of ~83% HRMAX for the highest-reaching full SSG format (3v3-L). Nevertheless, only 1.1 ± 1.2 minutes per bout and 4.3 ± 3.8 minutes per SSG (~24%) were spent above 90% HRMAX, an intensity often deemed necessary for promoting cardiovascular adaptation. Bout 1 was shown to yield greater performance than subsequent bouts, mainly in formats with the most extreme relative pitch sizes. However, RPE increased with every bout in all SSG formats. Differences between age groups were identified that were performance measure-specific, non-linear in evolution, and non-uniform. A conservative injury incidence of 59.8 per 1000 player-hours was found. The match demands of rugby sevens (7s) were investigated in Chapter 8, showing a continuous high-intensity profile. Youth players demonstrated high kinematic demands with RD of 111 m·min-1, 3 sprints·min-1, and 252 m HIRD. Match intensity resulted in an HRAVG of 90% HRMAX, with up to 58% of game time above 90% HRMAX. These youth match demands were established to be greater than their international peers, senior 7s games, and elite-level cohorts. Of note, U15 demonstrated greater kinematic and physiological demands than their U19 counterparts. In Chapter 9, the demands of fifteen-a-side matches were investigated, showing a more intermittent high-intensity profile. Approximately 87% of match distance was covered at low speeds (<50% VTOP) with an HRAVG of 87% HRMAX, and up to 88% of game time was performed above 80% HRMAX. Kinematic demands showed 73 m·min-1 of RD, 1.4 sprints·min-1, and 410 m HIRD. Performance was largely maintained between playing halves and differences between forwards and backs mainly related to relative performance. These demands converged towards and even surpassed those of the senior game and some elite-level cohorts. In conclusion, this doctoral thesis contributes novel evidence to the body of knowledge that deepens the understanding of the application of SSG to youth RU players, relative to match demands in 7s and fifteen-a-side matches. This knowledge is important as it provides a standardised benchmark to apply concrete SSG guidelines for targeting general and specific outcomes in RU practice. This benchmark can be used to contrast with higher-level competition demands and thereby forming the foundation of a developmental pathway by progressively targeting these performance standards. Based on our research, standardised SSG with greater relative pitch area generally increase acute kinematic, physiological, and physical demands in U14 to U18 RU players. However, important nuances exist between individual performance measures on the one hand, and between age categories on the other. These nuances require further research and SSG prescription necessitates an age group and outcome measure-specific approach (i.e., exact physical, physiological, kinematic, technical and/or tactical variables), which can be optimised by practitioners implementing constraint manipulation within their specific context. The kinematic, physiological, and physical match demands of NZ secondary school-level competition are very high and may adequately prepare players for senior and higher-level rugby. Small-sided game training as delivered in this investigation can be used as a safe and solid basis for general conditioning of youth players and to prepare them for most movement demands of RU competition. To obtain optimal match preparation, SSG design should be modulated using the prescriptions presented in this thesis and expanded on by experimenting with additional design elements taken from best-practice, cross-code, and cross-sport SSG research. To meet full competition demands, SSG training should furthermore be complemented by other training modalities to attain the requisite and complete high-intensity cardiovascular and movement performance outputs of fifteen and seven-a-side youth rugby competition.Item Te pā harakeke: Educational success and kōhanga reo(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) McMillan, HoanaExploring the meaning of educational success in an indigenous context is a challenging task. Success has come to be promoted as narrow forms of academic success. However, “academic success” does not adequately take into account the knowledge, values, and beliefs of Indigenous peoples that stem from their unique ways of living and being in the world. Indigenous language immersion settings, such as kōhanga reo (Māori immersion “language nests” for children from birth to six years old in Aotearoa New Zealand), have emerged in response to the desires of Indigenous peoples to retain their knowledge, language, and culture. This study contributes to the debate about the nature of educational success by examining multi-generational whānau (family) views of educational success in kōhanga reo. It also explores the contributions of kōhanga reo to the educational success of whānau. The study explored the lived experiences and views of educational success across five whānau spanning three generations: kaumātua (the grandparent generation who helped to set up kōhanga reo), mātua (the parent generation and first graduates of kōhanga reo), and mokopuna (children of the mātua and grandchildren of the kaumātua generations). Data for the kaumātua and mātua generations was collected through the Māori cultural practice of wānanga, and the Mosaic approach was used with mokopuna to provide a number of tools for them to express their views of educational success. The data gathered was then represented as multi-generational pūrākau (a Māori form of storying) to ensure the narratives relating to educational success remained intact and culturally valid. The findings of this research show the meaning of educational success for the three generations in kōhanga reo was associated with Mana Reo (the power of language), Mana Tangata (the power of people), and Mana Whenua (the power of the land). In addition, kōhanga reo has championed the educational success of the multi-generational whānau by providing strong support for the Māori language, whānau transformations, and wellbeing. The influence of kōhanga reo has led to many outcomes showcasing the educational success of mokopuna and whānau who are learning, using, sharing, and protecting te reo Māori. All three generations value whanaungatanga and manaakitanga, and actively look for opportunities that lead to positive outcomes in their homes, schools, and wider communities. There are many implications for whānau, kōhanga reo, Te Kōhanga Reo National Trust, the education sector, and policy makers. Foremost is reaffirming the message that identity, language, and culture matters in discussions relating to educational success. With each generation, whānau are unlocking new dimensions of, and pathways to, educational success linked to Mana Reo, Mana Tangata, and Mana Whenua. The kōhanga reo model, as a unique indigenous model, plays an important role in unlocking pathways to educational success now and in the future through its unwavering commitment to the cultural socialisation of whānau.Item Academic identity development: Insights of doctoral students from Pakistan(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Khalil , Muhammad AtifThe development of doctoral students’ academic identity is an emerging area of research. However, there is limited research that has investigated the roles and activities which contribute to the transitions students undergo in the journey towards the formation of an academic identity. Research of this nature has become especially relevant as a number of countries, especially developing countries, are seeking ways to engage and socialise doctoral students into a professional or academic identity during their studies. Pakistan is an example of a country which is trying to address these concerns. There has been an increase in doctoral enrolments in Pakistan, the site of this study, and the resulting growth in the number of those with PhDs has intensified competition for academic positions. The Higher Education Commission is struggling to provide sufficient support and resources to ensure doctoral programmes prepare graduates for professional roles and develop their academic identities. Recent reports indicate that doctoral students are facing numerous challenges which hinder their successful socialisation and academic identity development. This narrative study aimed to scope doctoral students’ expectations and experiences during their doctoral journey and transition towards an academic identity. The research focused on doctoral students in the field of Education. Six students from a prestigious Pakistan university were recruited through purposive sampling. All the participants were near to completing their PhD; they were working on their data analysis or waiting for their examination reports. All the participants intended to pursue academic careers upon completion of their studies. Each participant completed two online narrative interviews. Thematic analysis of the narrative interviews was completed using a guiding framework which integrated a doctoral socialisation perspective, a stage approach of doctoral education, and role identity theory. This framework provided rich opportunities to examine the role identity development of each of the students. The analysis of each case revealed that students’ academic identity development happened through shifts in their prominent role identities across three key institutional milestone stages. The students outlined different socialisation experiences and identification based on the prominent roles in each milestone stage. These prominent roles were consistent with their increasing competence, confidence, and independence to perform a range of academic activities. The first coursework stage developed students’ prominent role identity as that of a learner. They developed a prominent role identity as an emerging researcher in stage two when crafting and presenting their research proposal. In the final stage, when they were writing their dissertation, students developed a prominent role identity as an emerging academic. In this stage students continued and expanded the researcher role and engaged in a range of academic activities (teaching, writing research papers, attending research conferences, managing research journals and research projects) beyond those involved in their dissertation work. The combination and dynamic development of multiple role identities (learner, emerging researcher, and emerging academic) served to prepare these doctoral students for an academic and professional identity. Importantly, while students had a learner role identity in all stages, the focus of their learning moved from mastering prescribed content to application and then production of knowledge. Cross case analysis identified that social interaction, personal motivation and the nature of academic writing were the dominant aspects in the composition and development of students’ role identities. Social interaction was the key means through which students could gain support and validation from others for their different role identities. Motivation was a personal dimension which drove students’ courage and persistence to engage in academic activities and seek to meet the expectations of each role identity. The writing aspect provided students with evidence for self-evaluation and evaluation by others in relation to their progress within the different role identities. The study contributes to understanding of the complex socialisation processes doctoral students experience and the various roles they perform as they progress through their doctoral journey. Findings suggest that creating more opportunities for doctoral students to engage in learning activities and extend their interactions with teachers, peers, supervisors, and experts within an academic community would assist them to gain the competence, confidence, and the independence needed to perform relevant academic activities.Item Marine stressor and receptor interactions: A new approach to incorporate multiple stressor impacts into marine spatial management(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024-04-01) Watson, StephanieSoft sediment benthic ecosystems are highly productive habitats which provide humans with a variety of valued resources and ecosystem services globally. However, coastal environments are subject to ongoing and increasing levels of anthropogenic stress which urgently needs to be quantified and strategically managed to balance socioeconomic resource interests. To support a more holistic approach to Marine Spatial Planning and better inform management decisions, spatial assessment approaches are needed which quantify the accumulating impact of multiple stressors on coastal species and habitats. This thesis investigates stressor-induced change in the density and distribution of subtidal benthic invertebrates from two globally pervasive stressors (sedimentation and bottom fishing), to develop spatial assessment tools useful to inform marine spatial management decisions. For many benthic species, their functional capacity is inherently density-dependent, and environmental stressors can impact population density, hence limiting the functional capacity of species and their ability to contribute to ecosystem processes and overall ecosystem health. A holistic approach to MSP needs to address the ways in which humans can cumulatively use, and also impact the environment, but it is difficult to measure the impact an environmental stressor can cause without first quantifying the current density and distribution of key species that they effect. Furthermore, it can often be challenging to obtain species records measuring abundance, density, or species richness within certain geographical locations, due to data scarcity, even if more data is available over a broader spatial scale. Probability of occurrence, abundance, and density was predicted using Species Distribution Models (SDMs) for seven functionally distinct benthic invertebrates, over two different spatial scales to compare the difference in model performance and usefulness of predictions made using data-rich national scale models compared to data limited regional scale models. Results indicated that neither occurrence nor abundance SDMs performed consistently better at either scale across all taxa models, demonstrating the challenge of working in-data limited environments. Models which achieved the more optimal predictive performance across spatial scales were selected to be combined into a regionally useful density model (i.e., regional data-derived occurrence model * national data-derived abundance model) highlighting the utility of a multi-scalar approach. Knowledge of how multiple stressors impact marine species and modify habitats over time is critical, to support management and mitigation of anthropogenic stressors. Bottom fishing and sedimentation stress are two globally pervasive coastal stressors. The transportation of terrestrially sourced silt, mud, and clay into the coastal environment from inadequate land management can alter sediment biogeochemistry, and alter macrofaunal community composition, which can lead to the smothering of seafloor communities. Bottom fishing can directly damage and disturb seabed habitats, reducing the abundance of macrofaunal communities, and can lead to homogenisation of the seascape. A spatially explicit model including correlative stressor-response relationships were applied to simulate single and multi-stressor impact scenarios over a temporal period of four-years to predict the change in density, distribution, and recovery for different stressor combinations and magnitudes. Models focussed on three functionally distinct coastal seafloor invertebrates that varied in stressor response and recovery time. All taxa exhibited different stressor responses in terms of density change, and the spatial distribution pattern of density values was affected, informed through empirically derived stressor-receptor response curves. The greatest modification to taxa density occurred across the shallow coastal environment, near shore, for habitats that were predicted to have high density to begin with. Fishing was the more dominant stressor and overlapping fishing impact year on year resulted in little to no recovery. For sensitive emergent epifauna (Callyspongia), sedimentation stress was almost as impactful as fishing, highlighting that greater management consideration should be given to the compound effect of slow-acting, accumulating stressors, even in scenarios where a single stressor is more dominant. Failure to adequately identify and mitigate the effects of multiple stressors increases the risk of focussing conservation efforts on areas that could become ecologically diminished in the future. To ensure that global biodiversity conservation targets are upheld under ongoing anthropogenic conditions, practitioners must identify robust and ecologically resilient habitats that will persist over time as part of a systematic prioritization approach. A comparative spatial prioritization assessment was performed to test the utility of using density SDMs that had been modified by stressor impacts (stressor-impacted predictions) to drive a spatial prioritization using Zonation, as opposed to using unimpacted density SDMs (the conventional method). Utilising stressor-impacted predictions within the prioritisation assessment increased conservation efficiency, and thus spatial accuracy, to help prioritise high-density areas that showed resilience to stressor impacts over time (from 4 years of successive stress). This analysis highlighted that conventional prioritization approaches may no longer be sufficient and may prioritise habitats that experience density loss under stressed conditions, undermining conservation effectiveness. Incorporating multiple stressor effects that have accrued over time can help identify areas that are likely to retain a higher total density into the future, to support long-term conservation objectives. Incorporation of spatially explicit stressor effects using taxa stressor impacted density predictions helps identify ecologically rich and resilient habitat areas that persist within the broad footprints of stressors, instead of avoidance, which is often promoted by conventional approaches to minimise conservation cost. Collectively, this thesis demonstrated the utility of novel modelling approaches which integrate the combined and accumulating effects of anthropogenic stressors on coastal species and habitats to help inform MSP decision-making. It also highlighted the range of possible implications to benthic species and coastal ecosystems if anthropogenic stressors are not adequately identified and managed.Item An evaluation of the NuroChek system for concussion assessment and management(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024) Treacy, JenniferCurrent methods of concussion assessment are subjective and vulnerable to error, and a missed concussion diagnosis could increase an athlete’s risk of further injury. An objective method of concussion assessment could provide valuable physiological data about injury severity and duration. The NuroChek system uses a flashing light stimulus to evoke electrophysiological activity, which is measured from occipital electrode sites and used to calculate a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and determine the magnitude of activity at the target location. Reductions in this activity are proposed to be associated with dysfunction or damage after concussion; in a previous study, the SNR was shown to decrease after concussion, and then return to baseline strength upon recovery. To examine the utility of the NuroChek system and SNR output in concussion assessment and management, 157 participants were assessed with the NuroChek system as rugby athletes (n = 121), combat athletes (n = 19), or non-athlete controls (n = 17). All athletes were assessed at multiple time points, while the non-athlete control group was only assessed at one time point. All participants completed two trials of the NuroChek headset and at least one cognitive measure. The first study (Chapter 4) examines the acute effects of concussion on the SNR, as well as any SNR changes after injury. Rugby athletes who sustained concussions (n = 21) were tested at multiple time points after their injuries with the NuroChek system and either the King-Devick (K-D) or the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT-5). The post-injury and baseline SNR were compared to identify any changes within 3 days of concussion, as well as changes during the follow-up time points that might correspond with concussion recovery (up to 20 days post-injury and mid-season or end-of-season if available). No statistically significant changes were seen after concussion, W = 11.000, p = 0.612, d = -0.099, n = 8. When compared to the non-concussed male rugby athletes, the concussed athletes had significantly lower SNRs than the athletes who sustained regular repetitive impacts by the end-of-season, H(3) = 10.160, p = 0.017, d = 0.135, n = 76. The second study (Chapter 5) examines the different effects that concussion history, age, and sex have on the SNR and its trajectory over time in those experiencing repetitive impacts. While the SNR was not affected by concussion history or age, there was a main effect for sex: male athletes demonstrated significantly higher average SNRs than female athletes at all three time points. Additionally, the SNRs from female participants demonstrated a significantly greater proportion of a harmonic artefact (51.8%, compared to 15.1% of data from male participants) that decreased the quality of the female data. Sex and repetitive impacts were examined for any interaction, but the sample sizes were too small in some subgroups for statistical analysis. A main effect of repetitive impacts on the SNR was also seen in rugby and combat athletes. This could indicate that repetitive impacts lead to higher SNR in athletes over time. Overall, the SNR in this study was not sensitive to changes after concussion or during recovery. No evidence was found to support NuroChek’s use in the assessment or management of concussion in rugby athletes. Additionally, the potential effect of repetitive impacts on the SNR confounds the relationship between the SNR and concussion. Future development of electrophysiological assessment methods for concussion should consider the effects of repetitive impacts and sex.