Allen, Robert2022-09-062022-09-062015https://hdl.handle.net/10289/15131New Zealand’s remaining indigenous forests and shrublands are of immense cultural, environmental, and economic significance. A representative plot-based sample of these forests and shrublands has recently allowed an unbiased depiction of their composition and structure. This is necessary for international reporting, performance assessment and management prioritisation. Their composition, structure, and function are driven by a diverse array of factors, many of which are complexly interrelated. The imprint of disturbances is pervasive and it is necessary to understand disturbances to interpret human-related impacts. For example, understanding impacts of exotic browsing mammals is only possible within a context of forest ecosystem development and tree demographic processes. There are now extensive areas of shrublands successional to forest, often composed of mixtures of indigenous and exotic species. These shrublands expand the pportunities for ecosystem services from, for example, carbon sequestration to water quality. An increasing area of indigenous forests and shrublands are managed for distinctive Māori aspirations that include sustainable use.application/pdf© 2015 LakesWater Quality Society.Conference Contribution