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Item Variability of blue carbon stocks in restored saltmarsh wetlands: Bay of Plenty, Aotearoa New Zealand(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2023-12-24)As anthropogenic pressures including urbanisation and climate change continue to pressure the natural environment, there is a great need to focus on solutions that both increase ecosystem resilience and mitigate climate change. Coastal wetlands are a “powerhouse” environment that have the potential to achieve this and much more. Among the variety of coastal wetlands, saltmarsh habitats are one of the most degraded environments globally, with a mere <10% estimated to remain in Aotearoa New Zealand. Many saltmarshes have been lost due to factors such as, conversion to pasture, and/or environmental degradation. As part of the conversation around saltmarsh restoration, nature-based solutions are a tool that is being increasingly considered when it comes to climate change mitigation and adaptation, due to the large potential saltmarshes possess to sequester CO2 alongside adapting to sea level rise such as by providing a space for flood water and for vegetation to slow down storm surges, alongside other environmental and societal benefits. This study investigates the blue carbon dynamics in restored and control saltmarsh habitats in the Bay of Plenty Aotearoa New Zealand, focusing on bulk density, concentration of carbon (%), Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Sediment Accumulation Rates (SAR), and Carbon Accumulation Rates (CAR). We focus on changes in blue carbon with time since saltmarsh restoration. Bulk density analysis revealed minimal variability among sites, with Matua Saltmarsh exhibiting the largest standard error (0.765 ± 0.057g cm3) and Wainui River Saltmarsh the lowest mean bulk density (0.633 ± 0.032g cm3). Carbon concentration was generally highly variable across sites, with Matua Saltmarsh exhibiting the highest mean concentration (5.83 ± 1.151%) and Wainui Repo Whenua the lowest (2.91 ± 0.26%). Total organic carbon stock decreased with depth across sites, with Matua Saltmarsh having the highest total organic carbon stock (1.21 ± 0.005g cm3 or 121.42 ± 0.534t ha-1) and Te Awa o Ngātoroirangi the lowest (0.69 ± 0.004g cm3 or 68.66 ± 0.401t ha-1). Carbon accumulation rates generally increased with restoration age, with Wainui River Saltmarsh exhibiting the highest sediment accumulation rate (11.57mm yr-1) and Matua Saltmarsh the highest carbon accumulation rate (161.87g m-2 yr-1 over the last 20 years). While no distinct trends in blue carbon stocks and concentration emerged between the restored and control environments, it is notable that restored saltmarshes consistently exhibited substantial carbon stocks compared to controls and global standards. Moreover, there were higher mean TOC figures within the first ~30 years post-restoration. These results align with expectations from previous studies, emphasizing the efficacy of saltmarsh restoration efforts in enhancing future carbon storage potential in Aotearoa. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive investigations into the roles of vegetation, sedimentation rates, microbial processes, alongside catchment hydrological conditions history. This thesis also highlights that long-term monitoring beyond the initial 20- 30 years post-restoration is crucial to comprehensively understand the trajectory of blue carbon dynamics. In addition, comparative studies accounting for diverse restoration techniques and assessments of broader ecosystem services delivered by saltmarsh restoration are essential. Addressing these factors will deepen our understanding of the specific mechanisms influencing blue carbon dynamics in Aotearoa's restored saltmarshes.Item Application of small and large-sided games to youth rugby union: A match demands approach(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024)Rugby union (RU) is a highly demanding and a global contact sport that combines physical, technical, and tactical characteristics. This team sport is practiced by players of all ages and backgrounds on various levels of play. To meet the demands of rugby competition, a multifactorial approach to training has been applied in practice. One training method that has risen to prominence for its reported benefits of contextualising and concurrently training all aspects of high-intensity intermittent field-based sports such as RU, is small-sided games (SSG). Most research on these training forms has been conducted on soccer players and tends to confirm its benefits. Emerging evidence in the rugby codes is heavily focussed on rugby league senior players, often on the elite level. Rugby union has shown scarce evidence for SSG training in senior players, but the knowledge regarding youth players is lagging. The aim of this thesis was therefore to investigate the application of SSG to RU, clarify their characteristics in youth players, and evaluate their suitability in function of developing and preparing players for competition. The initial literature review in Chapter 2 outlines that the physical, physiological, and kinematic demands of rugby competition are high, and vary according to the cohorts investigated, such as for playing level and position. In addition, emerging evidence showed that the match demands of youth differ between age groups, and from those in senior players. This preliminary investigation showed scant evidence of SSG efficacy and utility for improving physical performance but the research regarding the effects of SSG design was scarce and demonstrated incoherent methodology. The systematic review of the body of literature in Chapter 4 used PRISMA methodology to establish that five out of seven initial studies examining the effects of SSG were at critical risk of bias, and a further two were at moderate risk. Despite moderate to good methodological quality (52-98%), these findings imply two studies provide sound evidence for a non-randomized study but cannot be considered comparable to a well-performed randomized trial, and five studies are objectively too problematic to provide any useful evidence and should not be included in any future synthesis of the literature. Within these studies, the lack of a focussed line of investigation was identified as a key weakness. Initial results of the review indicated that various SSG designs influence the outcomes differently for different cohorts, and that fewer players and larger pitches could increase demands. However, no evidence was available for the design of SSG in youth RU players. Recent evolutions in the relevant literature revealed that seven additional studies have expanded the knowledge but show a similar disparity in methods, hampering the ability to extrapolate clear and applicable conclusions for SSG design, especially in youth players. In Chapter 5 and Chapter 6, a worldwide e-survey study (n=115) discussed the application of SSG in RU practice. These results confirmed the notion that SSG are widely used in practice, with 85% of practitioners, applying SSG regularly across all levels of play and in all age categories. Technical skill (26%), fun (25%), physical conditioning (18%), and tactical training (17%) were established as the main targeted objectives. The specific design of SSG was related to practitioners’ characteristics such as playing level, coaching experience, practitioner role, target age group, player sex, and geographical location. Most practitioners used two or three bouts of three to seven-a-side SSG, with a 1:1 to 5:1 work-rest ratio, for short durations (2-10 minutes). Tackle (37%), touch (36%), and wrapping (28%) were commonly implemented rules. However, school and lower-level coaches used longer bouts and tackle rules on less variable pitch sizes, for fun and technical skill, more often than higher-level coaches, who preferred shorter-duration bouts with touch rules and more extreme pitch sizes, primarily for physical conditioning. Overall, 3v3, 5v5, and 7v7 were determined to be the most popular top-three SSG formats. We established that SSG design should be evidence-based and reflect the needs and challenges of the specific performance context. In Chapter 7, a cross-sectional experimental study was conducted on NZ secondary school-age RU players (n= 158; age 14.8 ± 1.4; height 174.5 ± 7.5 cm; mass 77.2 ± 17.1 kg). Four age groups (U14, U15, U16, U18) randomly played 3v3, 5v5, or 7v7 on a small (S= 25x35 m), medium (M= 35x50 m), or large (L=50x70 m) pitch, for three bouts of four minutes with three minutes of active recovery. Kinematic, physiological, and physical data were captured using microsensor devices, alongside ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and injury incidence. Multiple multivariate and univariate analyses found that player number and pitch size are the main elemental SSG design factors driving performance outcomes, followed by player age category and bout sequencing. The results showed that the isolated effect of increasing player numbers decreased kinematic and physiological demands, while an increase in pitch size mainly increased kinematic but not physiological demands. However, design factors mutually affected each other’s influence and select performance measures, such as sprint frequency, showed greater resistance to changes in format. Moreover, the innovative approach of the study in Chapter 7 integrated the SSG design constraints and demonstrated that maximising relative playing area (i.e., 3v3-L) maximises most kinematic, physiological, and physical performance measures. These findings further suggested that various SSG formats between ~350 and 583 m2·player-1, and for some measures as little as 175 m2·player-1, can produce running demands of approximately 94 m∙min-1 of relative distance (RD) and 145 m of high-intensity running distance (HIRD). Intensity measures across all youth showed an RPE of 15 and an average heart rate (HRAVG) of ~83% HRMAX for the highest-reaching full SSG format (3v3-L). Nevertheless, only 1.1 ± 1.2 minutes per bout and 4.3 ± 3.8 minutes per SSG (~24%) were spent above 90% HRMAX, an intensity often deemed necessary for promoting cardiovascular adaptation. Bout 1 was shown to yield greater performance than subsequent bouts, mainly in formats with the most extreme relative pitch sizes. However, RPE increased with every bout in all SSG formats. Differences between age groups were identified that were performance measure-specific, non-linear in evolution, and non-uniform. A conservative injury incidence of 59.8 per 1000 player-hours was found. The match demands of rugby sevens (7s) were investigated in Chapter 8, showing a continuous high-intensity profile. Youth players demonstrated high kinematic demands with RD of 111 m·min-1, 3 sprints·min-1, and 252 m HIRD. Match intensity resulted in an HRAVG of 90% HRMAX, with up to 58% of game time above 90% HRMAX. These youth match demands were established to be greater than their international peers, senior 7s games, and elite-level cohorts. Of note, U15 demonstrated greater kinematic and physiological demands than their U19 counterparts. In Chapter 9, the demands of fifteen-a-side matches were investigated, showing a more intermittent high-intensity profile. Approximately 87% of match distance was covered at low speeds (<50% VTOP) with an HRAVG of 87% HRMAX, and up to 88% of game time was performed above 80% HRMAX. Kinematic demands showed 73 m·min-1 of RD, 1.4 sprints·min-1, and 410 m HIRD. Performance was largely maintained between playing halves and differences between forwards and backs mainly related to relative performance. These demands converged towards and even surpassed those of the senior game and some elite-level cohorts. In conclusion, this doctoral thesis contributes novel evidence to the body of knowledge that deepens the understanding of the application of SSG to youth RU players, relative to match demands in 7s and fifteen-a-side matches. This knowledge is important as it provides a standardised benchmark to apply concrete SSG guidelines for targeting general and specific outcomes in RU practice. This benchmark can be used to contrast with higher-level competition demands and thereby forming the foundation of a developmental pathway by progressively targeting these performance standards. Based on our research, standardised SSG with greater relative pitch area generally increase acute kinematic, physiological, and physical demands in U14 to U18 RU players. However, important nuances exist between individual performance measures on the one hand, and between age categories on the other. These nuances require further research and SSG prescription necessitates an age group and outcome measure-specific approach (i.e., exact physical, physiological, kinematic, technical and/or tactical variables), which can be optimised by practitioners implementing constraint manipulation within their specific context. The kinematic, physiological, and physical match demands of NZ secondary school-level competition are very high and may adequately prepare players for senior and higher-level rugby. Small-sided game training as delivered in this investigation can be used as a safe and solid basis for general conditioning of youth players and to prepare them for most movement demands of RU competition. To obtain optimal match preparation, SSG design should be modulated using the prescriptions presented in this thesis and expanded on by experimenting with additional design elements taken from best-practice, cross-code, and cross-sport SSG research. To meet full competition demands, SSG training should furthermore be complemented by other training modalities to attain the requisite and complete high-intensity cardiovascular and movement performance outputs of fifteen and seven-a-side youth rugby competition.Item Te pā harakeke: Educational success and kōhanga reo(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024)Exploring the meaning of educational success in an indigenous context is a challenging task. Success has come to be promoted as narrow forms of academic success. However, “academic success” does not adequately take into account the knowledge, values, and beliefs of Indigenous peoples that stem from their unique ways of living and being in the world. Indigenous language immersion settings, such as kōhanga reo (Māori immersion “language nests” for children from birth to six years old in Aotearoa New Zealand), have emerged in response to the desires of Indigenous peoples to retain their knowledge, language, and culture. This study contributes to the debate about the nature of educational success by examining multi-generational whānau (family) views of educational success in kōhanga reo. It also explores the contributions of kōhanga reo to the educational success of whānau. The study explored the lived experiences and views of educational success across five whānau spanning three generations: kaumātua (the grandparent generation who helped to set up kōhanga reo), mātua (the parent generation and first graduates of kōhanga reo), and mokopuna (children of the mātua and grandchildren of the kaumātua generations). Data for the kaumātua and mātua generations was collected through the Māori cultural practice of wānanga, and the Mosaic approach was used with mokopuna to provide a number of tools for them to express their views of educational success. The data gathered was then represented as multi-generational pūrākau (a Māori form of storying) to ensure the narratives relating to educational success remained intact and culturally valid. The findings of this research show the meaning of educational success for the three generations in kōhanga reo was associated with Mana Reo (the power of language), Mana Tangata (the power of people), and Mana Whenua (the power of the land). In addition, kōhanga reo has championed the educational success of the multi-generational whānau by providing strong support for the Māori language, whānau transformations, and wellbeing. The influence of kōhanga reo has led to many outcomes showcasing the educational success of mokopuna and whānau who are learning, using, sharing, and protecting te reo Māori. All three generations value whanaungatanga and manaakitanga, and actively look for opportunities that lead to positive outcomes in their homes, schools, and wider communities. There are many implications for whānau, kōhanga reo, Te Kōhanga Reo National Trust, the education sector, and policy makers. Foremost is reaffirming the message that identity, language, and culture matters in discussions relating to educational success. With each generation, whānau are unlocking new dimensions of, and pathways to, educational success linked to Mana Reo, Mana Tangata, and Mana Whenua. The kōhanga reo model, as a unique indigenous model, plays an important role in unlocking pathways to educational success now and in the future through its unwavering commitment to the cultural socialisation of whānau.Item Academic identity development: Insights of doctoral students from Pakistan(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024)The development of doctoral students’ academic identity is an emerging area of research. However, there is limited research that has investigated the roles and activities which contribute to the transitions students undergo in the journey towards the formation of an academic identity. Research of this nature has become especially relevant as a number of countries, especially developing countries, are seeking ways to engage and socialise doctoral students into a professional or academic identity during their studies. Pakistan is an example of a country which is trying to address these concerns. There has been an increase in doctoral enrolments in Pakistan, the site of this study, and the resulting growth in the number of those with PhDs has intensified competition for academic positions. The Higher Education Commission is struggling to provide sufficient support and resources to ensure doctoral programmes prepare graduates for professional roles and develop their academic identities. Recent reports indicate that doctoral students are facing numerous challenges which hinder their successful socialisation and academic identity development. This narrative study aimed to scope doctoral students’ expectations and experiences during their doctoral journey and transition towards an academic identity. The research focused on doctoral students in the field of Education. Six students from a prestigious Pakistan university were recruited through purposive sampling. All the participants were near to completing their PhD; they were working on their data analysis or waiting for their examination reports. All the participants intended to pursue academic careers upon completion of their studies. Each participant completed two online narrative interviews. Thematic analysis of the narrative interviews was completed using a guiding framework which integrated a doctoral socialisation perspective, a stage approach of doctoral education, and role identity theory. This framework provided rich opportunities to examine the role identity development of each of the students. The analysis of each case revealed that students’ academic identity development happened through shifts in their prominent role identities across three key institutional milestone stages. The students outlined different socialisation experiences and identification based on the prominent roles in each milestone stage. These prominent roles were consistent with their increasing competence, confidence, and independence to perform a range of academic activities. The first coursework stage developed students’ prominent role identity as that of a learner. They developed a prominent role identity as an emerging researcher in stage two when crafting and presenting their research proposal. In the final stage, when they were writing their dissertation, students developed a prominent role identity as an emerging academic. In this stage students continued and expanded the researcher role and engaged in a range of academic activities (teaching, writing research papers, attending research conferences, managing research journals and research projects) beyond those involved in their dissertation work. The combination and dynamic development of multiple role identities (learner, emerging researcher, and emerging academic) served to prepare these doctoral students for an academic and professional identity. Importantly, while students had a learner role identity in all stages, the focus of their learning moved from mastering prescribed content to application and then production of knowledge. Cross case analysis identified that social interaction, personal motivation and the nature of academic writing were the dominant aspects in the composition and development of students’ role identities. Social interaction was the key means through which students could gain support and validation from others for their different role identities. Motivation was a personal dimension which drove students’ courage and persistence to engage in academic activities and seek to meet the expectations of each role identity. The writing aspect provided students with evidence for self-evaluation and evaluation by others in relation to their progress within the different role identities. The study contributes to understanding of the complex socialisation processes doctoral students experience and the various roles they perform as they progress through their doctoral journey. Findings suggest that creating more opportunities for doctoral students to engage in learning activities and extend their interactions with teachers, peers, supervisors, and experts within an academic community would assist them to gain the competence, confidence, and the independence needed to perform relevant academic activities.Item Dual language books in a secondary classroom: Raising awareness of culture and language(Thesis, The University of Waikato, 2024)Dual language picturebooks refer to picturebooks which contain two or more languages. These books are most readily recognised as bilingual, where the story is told in two languages in the same book, but they may also appear as the same story told in different languages in separate books, or have two or more languages woven together throughout the text. The illustrations in dual language picturebooks can be drawn from the appropriate cultures, further enriching the story. Research into picturebooks has been conducted internationally with early childhood and primary aged children, but none has been conducted with secondary (13-18 years old) school students. This thesis paper describes the first research into how dual language picturebooks are perceived by secondary students and their teacher in a single sex school in Aotearoa New Zealand. The ways that the students engaged with the text are also examined. The research found that both students and teachers showed a growing appreciation for dual language picturebooks over the research sessions. Students demonstrated theory of mind and critical language awareness through engagement with the stories, and showed a preference for translingual picturebooks. Implications for teachers are also discussed.
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